Best nutritional information, ever.

This post is a Homage to Orthomolecular.org the most valuable health website I know of.

www.orthomolecular.org

Recently I tried to visit their site and my browser wouldn’t let me in. Some lame excuse about security that Google is using to block anything natural from the public. So I decided to copy some of their valuable nutritional statistics (when I finally got in) and post them here just in case it disappears. I have also made a downloadable PDF which is on my homepage.

Orthomolecular.org is a professional organization of qualified nutritionists especially this man, Andrew Saul, an incredible health resource.

http://www.doctoryourself.com/

There is a lot more on their website. You can search for hundreds of foods to see their chemistry i.e onion.

www.orthomolecular.org/nutrition

They have realistic daily dose information for most things they have written about. Many health practitioners believe on average, the daily recommendations by Governments are too low, especially for emergency situations like Covid-19. They give a second opinion of safe doses on their website, as well as here.

The information below is my attempt to protect them in case they go down. There is a lot of information here, all on one page, and a lot more on their website. www.orthomolecular.org

This page covers areas about carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. There are two sections. Normal and more detail. The more detail is below all the sections in tables. Say you are interested in vitamins, you can read about the ones you are interested in in the tables first, then skip down to more details about them below. The sources, actions on your body and doses are truly priceless.

Nutrient sources

Orthomolecular.org

Vitamins
Vitamin	Sources	Function
Vitamin A (retinol and beta-carotene)	Barley grass, butter, cabbage, carotenoids (plant origins, converted to A by the body), carrot root, egg yolk, fish, gotu kola, liver, retinol (ready made A, animal origin, alcohol form), retinyl palmitate (ester form of retinol, ester is preponderant in fish liver oils), spirulina, whole milk.	Essential for vision, adequate growth, and tissue differentiation. Vitamin A has excellent antioxidant properties, stimulates the production of mucous, and is absorbed by the body 3-5 hours after ingestion.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)	Asparagus, beef kidney, beef liver, brewer’s yeast, brown rice, dried legumes, garbanzo beans, gotu kola, kidney beans, lamb, milk, navy beans, nuts, pork, poultry, rice bran, rye, salmon, soybeans, spirulina, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, whole grain cereals, yeast. Thiamine hydrochloride, thiamine mononitrate.	Plays a key role in the body’s metabolic cycle for generating energy; aids in the digestion of carbohydrates; essential for the normal functioning of the nervous system, muscles & heart; stabilizes the appetite; promotes growth & good muscle tone.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)	Almonds, asparagus, barley grass, brewer’s yeast, cheese, chicken, eggs, green leafy vegetables, liver, meat, milk products, organ meats, peppermint leaves, Senna leaves, spirulina, Wheat germ.	Necessary for carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism; aids in the formation of antibodies and red blood cells; maintains cell respiration; necessary for the maintenance of good vision, skin, nails & hair; alleviates eye fatigue; promotes general health.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin, Nicotinic acid)	Beef liver, brewer’s yeast, chicken white meat, eyebright, feverfew, fish, green leafy vegetables, halibut, hops flowers, lean meats, legumes, liver, milk, nuts, peanuts, pork, poultry, red raspberry leaves, salmon, sunflower seeds, swordfish, tuna, turkey, veal. Niacinamide, nicotinamide are made from niacin. Niacinamide ascorbate is a complex of niacinamide and ascorbic acid. Niacin is formed in the body from tryptophan.	Improves circulation and reduces the cholesterol level in the blood; maintains the nervous system; helps metabolize protein, sugar & fat; reduces high blood pressure; increases energy through proper utilization of food; prevents pellagra; helps maintain a healthy skin, tongue & digestive system.
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)	Blue cheese, brewer’s yeast, brain, calcium pantothenate, corn, eggs, heart, kidney, legumes, lentils, liver, lobster, meats, milk, molasses, peanuts, peas, rice, soybeans, sunflower seeds, vegetables, wheat germ, whole grain cereals. D-calcium pantothenate (C5H16NO5)2Ca, calcium salt of pantothenic acid, only the dextro – (D) form has vitamin activity.	Participates in the release of energy from carbohydrates, fats & protein, aids in the utilization of vitamins; improves the body’s resistance to stress; helps in cell building & the development of the central nervous system; helps the adrenal glands, fights infections by building antibodies.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)	Avocado, banana, bran, bread, brewer’s yeast, carrrots, chicken, corn, fish, hazelnuts, halibut, ham, herring, legumes, lentils, liver, peanuts, rice, salmon, shrimp, soybean, sunflower seeds, trout, tuna, walnuts, wheat germ, whole grain cereals. Vitamin B6 from nutritional supplements is pyridoxine hydrochloride.	Necessary for the synthesis & breakdown of amino acids, the building blocks of protein; aids in fat and carbohydrate metabolism; aids in the formation of antibodies; maintains the central nervous system; aids in the removal of excess fluid of premenstrual women; promotes healthy skin; reduces muscle spasms, leg cramps, hand numbness, nausea & stiffness of hands; helps maintain a proper balance of sodium & phosphorus in the body.
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid/Folate)	Barley, beans, beets, brewer’s yeast, calves’ liver, dark green leafy vegetables, endive, egg yolks, fruits, garbanzo beans, lentils, orange juice, peas, rice, soybeans, split peas, sprouts, wheat germ, whole-wheat bread, yeast.	Necessary for DNA & RNA synthesis, which is essential for the growth and reproduction of all body cells; essential to the formation of red blood cells by its action on the bone marrow; aids in amino acid metabolism.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)	Beef, blue cheese, brain, clams, dairy products, eggs, fish, flounder, heart, herring, kidney, liver, liverwurst, mackerel, milk, sardines, shellfish, snapper, swiss cheese.	Helps in the formation & regeneration of red blood cells, thus helping prevent anemia; necessary for carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism; maintains a healthy nervous system; promotes growth in children; increases energy; needed for Calcium absorption.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)	Acerola fruit, aloe vera juice, black currant, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, capsicum, cauliflower, citrus fruits, citrus fruits, collards, currants, grapefruit, guava, kale, lemons, mango, oranges, papayas, parsley, potatoes, rose hips, spinach, strawberries, sweet peppers, sweet potatoes, tangerines, tomatoes, watercress. Fermentation of sorbitol.	Essential for healthy teeth, gums & bones; helps heal wounds, scar tissue, & fractures; prevents scurvy; builds resistance to infection; aids in the prevention & treatment of the common cold; gives strength to blood vessels; aids in the absorption of iron. It is required for the synthesis of collagen, the intercellular “cement” which holds tissues together. It is also one of the major antioxidant nutrients. It prevents the conversion of nitrates (from tobacco smoke, smog, bacon, lunch meats, & some vegetables) into cancer-causing substances. According to Dr. Linus Pauling, the foremost authority on Vitamin C, Vitamin C will decrease the risk of getting certain cancers by 75%.
Vitamin D (Calciferol)	Butter, cod liver oil, eggs, halibut liver oil, herring, mackerel, meat, milk, salmon, sardines. Cholecalciferol can be produced industrially by the action of ultraviolet light on 7-dehydrocholesterol.	Improves absorption and utilization of Calcium and Phosphorus; required for bone and teeth formation; maintains a stable nervous system and normal heart action.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)	Almonds, apricot oil, corn, corn oil, cottonseed oil, eggs, hazelnuts, leafy green vegetables, margarine, milk, nuts, palm, peanut oil, safflower, seeds, soya, sunflower seeds, walnuts, wheat germ, whole grains. Vitamin E that is produced industrially is derived from natural sources and is obtained by molecular distillation of edible vegetable oil products.	Major anti-oxidant nutrient; retards cellular aging due to oxidation; supplies oxygen to the blood which is then carried to the heart and other organs; thus alleviating fatigue; aids in bringing nourishment to cells; strengthens the capillary walls & prevents the red blood cells from destructive poisons; prevents & dissolves blood clots; has also been used by doctors in helping prevent sterility, muscular dystrophy, calcium deposits in blood walls and heart conditions.
Vitamin H (Biotin)	Brewer’s yeast, brown rice, bulgur wheat, butter, calves’ liver, cashews, cereals, cheese, chicken, egg yolk, eggs, green peas, kidney, lentils, liver, mackerel, meats, milk, nuts, oats, peanuts, soybeans, split peas, sunflower seeds, tuna, walnuts. Synthesized industrially from fumaric acid. Synthesized in the body by intestinal bacteria.	Promotes healthy nerves, skin and muscles; coenzyme in glucose metabolism and fat synthesis. Aids in the utilization of protein, folic acid, Pantothenic acid, and Vitamin B-12, promotes healthy hair.
Vitamin K (Phytomenadione)	Vitamin K1 is found naturally in plants. Vitamin K2 is synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract of humans. Vitamin K3 is synthesized for industrial applications which can be converted into vitamin K2 in the intestinal tract of the body. Natural sources of vitamin K1 consists of broccoli, cabbage, spinach, lettuce, turnip greens, green tea, beef liver, egg yolks, whole wheat, oats, soybeans, potatoes, butter, cheese, asparagus, tomatoes. Vitamin K2 sources are the bacterial flora in the ileum and jejunum.	Vitamin K is essential for the blood clotting mechanism that protects the body from bleeding to death from cuts, wounds, and internal bleeding. It is needed for the synthesis of prothrombin, a protein which converts soluble fibrinogen circulating in the blood into very insoluble protein called fibrin, the major component of a blood clot. Vitamin K plays an essential role in the production of carboxyglutamyl residues from the amino acid, glutamic acid.
Vitamin P (Bioflavonoids)	Apricots, bark, black currants, blue and red berries, buckwheat, cherries, elderberry, fruits, grapes, grapefruit, garlic, green tea, green vegetables, hawthorne berry, horsetail, lemons, nuts, oil, oranges, onions, peppers, prunes, rose hips, soy beans, the peels of citrus fruits, and shepherd’s purse.	Maintains the resistance of cell and capillary walls to permeation, prevents bruising, and intensify the effect of vitamin C in the body, helps hemorrhages and ruptures in the capillaries and connective tissues and builds a protective barrier against infections. Provides natural antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergy properties.
Choline (Vitamin B Group)	Brewer’s yeast, cabbage, calves’ liver, cauliflower, caviar, egg yolk, garbanzo beans, green beans, lecithin, lentils, liver, rice, soybeans, split peas, wheat germ.	Very important in controlling fat & cholesterol buildup in the body; prevents fat from accumulating in the liver; facilitates the movement of fats in the cells; helps regulate the kidneys, liver & gallbladder; important for nerve transmission; helps improve memory.
Inositol	Beans, brain, brewer’s yeast, calves’ liver, cantaloupe, citrus fruits (except lemons), garbanzo beans, heart, kidney, lecithin, legumes, lentils, liver, molasses, nuts, oats, pork, rice, veal, wheat germ, whole grains.	Necessary for the formation of lecithin; aids in the breakdown of fats; helps reduce blood cholesterol; helps prevent thinning hair.
Beta-Carotene	Apricots, Broccoli, Carrots, Melon, Palm Oil, Papaya, Pumpkin, Spinach, Tomatoes.	Necessary for growth & repair of body tissues; helps maintain smooth, soft disease-free skin; helps protect the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, throat & lungs, thereby reducing susceptibility to infections; protects against air pollutants; counteracts night-blindness & weak eyesight; aids in bone and teeth formation. Current medical research shows that foods rich in Beta Carotene will help reduce the risk of lung cancer & certain oral cancers. Unlike Vitamin A from fish liver oil, Beta Carotene is non-toxic.
PABA Para-aminobenzoic acid	Bran, brewer’s yeast, brown rice, eggs, fish, kidney, lecithin, liver, molasses, peanuts, soybeans, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, whole grain, yogurt.	Aids healthy bacteria in producing folic acid; aids in the formation of red blood cells; contains sun screening properties; aids in the assimilation of Pantothenic acid; returns hair to its natural color.

Fats and Oils
Fatty Acids	Sources	Function
alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA)	Flaxseeds, flaxseed oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, soybeans and soybean oil, pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil, purslane, perilla seed oil, walnuts and walnut oil.	The unique biochemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid is important and helps to make it a key player in immunity, vision, cell membranes, and the production of hormonelike compounds.
Caprylic Acid	Coconut oil, palm nut oil, butter fat and other vegetable and animal sources, synthesized from caprylic alcohol (octanol) found in coconut oil.	Antifungal, antiseptic, candidicide, flavoring agent.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)	Herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines, human breast milk, liver, brain.	Plays a crucial role in the growth and development of the central nervous system as well as visual functioning in infants, reduces inflammation and promotes wound healing in burn victims, also prevents colon cancer or treats it in its early stages.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)	Cod liver oil, herring, mackerel, salmon (not farm raised), sardines, human breast milk.	Improves cardiovascular health and may prevent the accumulation of plaque (cholesterol and fat) on the walls of the arteries.
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)	Borage oil (18-26%), black currant oil (15-20%), evening primrose oil (7-10%), fish, human mother’s milk, fungal oils, spirulina (often called blue-green algae).	Reduces inflammation and prevents diseases; is much stronger than the information regarding use of GLA for these purposes.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids	Flaxseed, fish oil, cod liver oil, krill and fortified everyday foods like bread and fruit juices, whole grains, fresh fruits, vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, moderate wine consumption.	Plays an important role as structural membrane lipids, particularly in nerve tissue and the retina and are precursors to eicosanoids – highly reactive substances such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes that act locally to influence a wide range of functions in cells and tissues.
Omega-6 Fatty Acids	Cereals, eggs, poultry, most vegetable oils, whole-grain breads, baked goods, organ meats, margarine.	Reduces the aches and pains of rheumatoid arthritis, relieves the discomforts of PMS, endometriosis, and fibrocystic breasts, reduces the symptoms of eczema and psoriasis, clears up acne and rosacea, prevents and improves diabetic neuropathy.
Omega-9 Fatty Acids (Oleic Acid)	Avocado fruit, Macadamia nuts, apricot seeds, almonds, olive oil.	Lowers blood levels of cholesterol.
Vitamin F (Fatty Acids)	Evening primrose oil, grape seed oil, flaxseed oil, and oils of grains, nuts and seeds, such as soybean, walnuts, sesame, sunflower, avocados, meat and fish like salmon, trout, mackerel and tuna.	Essential fatty acids maintain the function and integrity of cell membranes, transport, breakdown and excrete cholesterol and act as precursors to prostaglandins required in many physiological functions. Regulates oxygen use, electron transport and energy production. Helps form hemoglobin, maintain exocrine and endocrine glands, makejoint lubricants. Regulates blood pressure, platelet coagulation, kidney function; helps transport cholesterol, needed by active tissues; brain, retina, adrenal, testes; helps eliminate toxic peroxides, helps prevent allergies.
Oils	Sources	Function
Borage Oil	Black currant seed oil.	Improves circulation and hormonal balance—a great choice for women with PMS symptoms.
Cod Liver Oil	Fish.	Helps delay or even reverse the destruction of joint cartilage and inflammatory pain associated with arthritic disease, improves circulation and hormonal balance—a great choice for women with PMS symptoms.
Evening Primrose Oil	A small yellow wildflower (Oenothera biennis) has been used medicinally for centuries. The oil, pressed from the seed, is rich in linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid (EFA).	Cures, treats, or prevents practically everything—from rheumatoid arthritis, breast pain, hot flashes, premenstrual syndrome, eczema, and other skin problems to diabetic neuropathy, cancer, high blood cholesterol levels, and heart disease.
Fish Oil	Menhaden, pilchard, sardine, herring, salmon and fresh tuna.	Prevents heart disease, depression, cancer; alleviates auto-immune disorders, plus many other claims.
Fish Liver Oil	High potency livers from cod, shark, halibut.	Helps regulate the rhythm of the heart, prevent cardiac arrhythmias.
Flaxseed Oil	Flaxseed oil is obtained from the seed of the flax plant. It contains 50% to 60% omega-3 fatty acids. This amount is roughly double that contained in fish oil.	Prevents heart disease and cancer. Helpful in treating high cholesterol, high blood pressure, heart disease, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), arthritis, breast cancer, depression, burns, acne, asthma, menstrual pain; also proven helpful in protecting against certain infections and treating a variety of conditions including ulcers, migraine headaches, preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, lupus, and panic attacks.
Linseed Oil.	Dried ripe linseeds	Commission E Indications—External: Local inflammation (cataplasm). Internal: Chronic constipation, colon damaged by laxative abuse, irritable colon, diverticulitis, gastritis (mucilage), irritable bowel syndrome, enteritis (mucilage). [Top]
Safflower Oil	Oil expressed from the seeds of the safflower	Beneficial for painful inflamed joints, and applied to bruises, sprains, and painful arthritis. [Top]
Wheat Germ Oil	Triticum aestivum, Triticum sativum, Triticum vulgare.	Promotes healthy skin. A natural antioxidant which helps to prevent rancidity. [Top]

From <http://orthomolecular.org/nutrients/fats.shtml>

Proteins / Amino Acids
Proteins Amino Acid	Sources	Function
Alanine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, corn, dairy products, eggs, fish, gelatin, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Alanine is vital for the production of protein, essential for proper function of the central nervous system and helps form neurotransmitters. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. An important source of energy for muscle tissue, the brain and central nervous system; strengthens the immune system by producing antibodies; helps in the metabolism of sugars and organic acids.
Arginine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, carob, caseinate, chocolate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, oatmeal, popcorn, raisins, seafood, seeds, sesame seeds, soy, sunflower seeds, whey, whole grains.	Arginine is vital for the production of protein. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. Arginine crosses the blood-brain barrier, is a precursor for nitric oxide and is a responsible for the secretion of hormones such as growth hormone, glucagon and insulin. Assists in wound healing, helps remove excess ammonia from the body, stimulates immune function, and promotes secretion of several hormones, including glucagon, insulin, and growth hormone.
Asparagine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid that the body can manufacture in the liver. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein.
Aspartic Acid	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, sugar beet molasses, whey, whole grains, young sugar cane. Hydrolysis of asparagine. Reaction of ammonia with diethyl fumarate.	Combines with other amino acids to form compounds that absorb and remove toxins from the bloodstream.
Citruline	Melons; Watermelon, Cantaloupe, Cucumber.	It is used for the detoxification of ammonia, a byproduct of protein breakdown, and in the treatment of fatigue. It is also thought to stimulate the immune system.
Cystine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains. Hydrolysis of keratin.	Strengthens the protective lining of the stomach and intestines, which may help prevent damage caused by aspirin and similar drugs. Functions as an antioxidant and is a powerful aid to the body in protecting against radiation and pollution.
Glutamic Acid	Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, and protein-rich plant foods	The most common excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, has protective effects on the heart muscle in people with heart disease.
Glutamine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains. Hydrolysis of gluten, beet root or other proteins.	Serves as a source of fuel for cells lining the intestines, also used by white blood cells and is important for immune function.
Glutathione	Fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables, fish, meat, asparagus, avocado, and walnuts	A significant component of the collective antioxidant defenses, and a highly potent antioxidant and antitoxin in its own right.
Glycine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, gelatin, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, sugar cane, whey, whole grains. Reaction of ammonia with chloroacetic acid.	The ability to inhibit neurotransmitter signals in the central nervous system.
Histidine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Neurotransmitter, stimulant of gastric secretion, vasodilator, and blood pressure regulator.
Hydroxyproline	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, gelatin, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Non-essential amino acid, a precursor of proline which is needed for collagen production.
Isoleucine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, corn, dairy products, eggs, fish, hemp seed, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, pumpkin seed, seafood, seeds, soy, squash seed, whey, whole grains. Synthetic: amination of alpha-bromo-beta-methylvaleric acid.	Helps preventing muscle protein breakdown during exercise, preventing muscle loss at high altitudes and prolonging endurance performance in the heat.
Leucine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, corn, dairy products, eggs, fish, hemp seed, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, pumpkin seeds, seafood, seeds, soy, squash seeds, whey, whole grains. Synthetic: alpha-bromo acid.	Helps with the regulation of blood-sugar levels, the growth and repair of muscle tissue (such as bones, skin and muscles), growth hormone production, wound healing as well as energy regulation. Prevents the breakdown of muscle proteins.
Lysine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, cheese, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, lima beans, meat, milk, nuts, potatoes, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains, yeast. Fermentation of glucose or other carbohydrates, synthesis from caprolactam.	Helps with the building of muscle protein, assists in fighting herpes and cold sores. It is required for growth and bone development in children, assists in calcium absorption and maintaining the correct nitrogen balance in the body and maintaining lean body mass.
Methionine	Brewer’s yeast, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, meat, seafood, whey. Synthesized from HCN, acrolein and methyl mercaptan.	Supplies sulfur and other compounds required by the body for normal metabolism and growth. Improves memory recall in people with AIDS-related nervous system degeneration.
Ornithine	Meat, fish, dairy, and eggs.	Induces the release of growth hormone in the body, which in turn helps with fat metabolism. It is required for a properly functioning immune system and liver and assists in ammonia detoxification and liver rejuvenation. Helps in healing and repairing skin and tissue.
Phenylalanine	Almonds, avocado, bananas, beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, cheese, corn, cottage cheese, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, lima beans, meat, nuts, ovalbumin, peanuts, pickled herring, pumpkin seeds, seafood, seeds, sesame seeds, soy, whey, whole grains. Synthesis of alpha-acetaminocinnamic acid. [Top]	Influences certain chemicals in the brain that relate to pain sensation. Helpful for some people with Parkinson’s disease and has been used to treat chronic pain. It is used in elevating the mood since it is so closely involved with the nervous system. It helps with memory and learning. It has been used as an appetite suppressant.
Proline	Avocados, beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains. Synthesized from ornithine and glutamic acid.	Helps strengthen cardiac muscle, improves skin texture and aids collagen formation and helps contain the loss of collagen during aging.
Serine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains. Synthesized from glycine.	Serine is required for the metabolism of fat, tissue growth and the immune system as it assists in the production of immunoglobulins and antibodies.
Taurine	Brewer’s yeast, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, meat, ox bile, seafood.	Is needed for fat digestion, absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, the control of cholesterol serum levels in the body, maintaining cell membrane integrity.
Threonine	Beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, nuts, seafood, seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Threonine is important for the formation of many proteins and tooth enamel, collagen, and elastrin. It metabolizes fat and prevents the buildup of fat in the liver, and is useful with intestinal disorders, and indigestion. Antiulcer.
Tryptophan	Bananas, beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, cottage cheese, dairy products, dates, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, meat, milk, nuts, peanuts, protein (hydrolysis), seafood, seeds, soy, turkey, whey, whole grains. Synthetic: conversion of indole to gramine with methylation then interaction with acetylaminomalonic ester and hydrolysis.	Tryptophan is essential for the production of the B vitamin, niacin, which is vital for the brain to manufacture the key neurotransmitter, serotonin. It enhances the release of growth hormones, and suppresses the appetite.
Tyrosine	Almonds, avocados, bananas, beans, brewer’s yeast, brown rice bran, caseinate, cheese, cottage cheese, dairy products, eggs, fish, lactalbumin, legumes, lima beans, meat, milk, nuts, peanuts, pickled herring, pumpkin seeds, seafood, seeds, sesame seeds, soy, whey, whole grains.	Helps in suppressing the appetite and reducing body fat, production of skin and hair pigment, the proper functioning of the thyroid as well as the pituitary and adrenal gland.
Valine	Dairy products and red meat. Whey protein and egg protein supplements.	Promotes mental vigor, muscle coordination and calm emotions. Preventing muscle loss at high altitudes.

Carbohydrates
Simple Sugar	Sources	Function
Monosaccharides	Milk, honey, figs, beans, sugar beets, fruit	Requires no digestion and can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Is the immediate source of energy for cellular respiration.
Sugar alcohol	Hard candies, cookies, chewing gums, soft drinks, throat lozenges, fruits and berries.	Is made commercially by hydrogenation of glucose and is absorbed very slowly into the bloodstream.
Alcohol and ethanol	Maize, sorghum, potatoes, wheat, sugar-cane, grapes.	Ethanol does not require digestion and is directly absorbed through the gastrointestinal track. Alcohol and ethanol are formed by the fermentation of glucose by the enzyme in yeast, and although it contains very little nutritional value, it may represent a large part of the energy intake of individuals ingesting large amounts of alcohol.
Disaccharides	Sucrose in cane sugar, maltose in malt sugar and lactose in milk sugar.	Disaccharides are sugars containing two hexose units, such as sucrose in cane sugar, maltose in malt sugar and lactose in milk sugar.
Trisaccharides	Cottonseed meal, sugar beets, and molasses.	Trisaccharides are sugars containing three hexoses.
Complex Carbohydrates	Sources	Function
Dextrin	Baked goods, candy, gravies, pie fillings, poultry, puddings, and soups.	Dextrin occurs as an intermediate product of starch hydrolysis and is achieved by either enzymatic action or by cooking. It is used as a diluting agent for pills and capsules, as well as a thickener in creams and foam stabilizer in beer.
Starch	White potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, wheat, seeds, fruits, tapioca, rice.	Uses as thickener, water binder, emulsion stabilizer and gelling agent. Also often used as an inherent natural ingredient but it is also added for its functionality.
Cellulose	Cotton fiber, wood, paper.	Used as an anticake agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, dispersing agent, thickener, and gelling agent but these are generally subsidiary to its most important use of holding on to water.
Methylcellulose	Imitation syrups, salad dressings, fruits, vegetables, seeds, legumes, dried peas, beans, lentils, split peas, red beans, pinto beans, barley, oats, oat bran, rye, wheat bran, brown rice, whole grains.	Methylcellulose is part of the group “complex carbohydrates” and can absorb large quantities of water.
Glycogen		Glycogen is a quick storage vehicle for the body to keep large amounts of glucose when it is not needed by the body.
Polysaccharides	Apple cider vinegar, in the core and albedo of lemons.	Are used for storage of potential energy.
Fiber	Sources	Function
Fiber	Fresh fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, whole grains, potatoes, beans, lentils, legumes, oatmeal, oatbran, dried peas, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, whole wheat breads, barley, couscous, brown rice, bulgur, whole-grain breakfast cereals, wheat bran, carrots, cucumbers, zucchini, celery, tomatoes.	Reduces the risk of developing various conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, diverticular disease, and constipation. Helps prevent putrefaction of food in the colon, carcinogens forming in the body and running less risk of infection.

Fats and Oils
Fatty Acids	Sources	Function
alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA)	Flaxseeds, flaxseed oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, soybeans and soybean oil, pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil, purslane, perilla seed oil, walnuts and walnut oil.	The unique biochemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid is important and helps to make it a key player in immunity, vision, cell membranes, and the production of hormonelike compounds.
Caprylic Acid	Coconut oil, palm nut oil, butter fat and other vegetable and animal sources, synthesized from caprylic alcohol (octanol) found in coconut oil.	Antifungal, antiseptic, candidicide, flavoring agent.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)	Herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines, human breast milk, liver, brain.	Plays a crucial role in the growth and development of the central nervous system as well as visual functioning in infants, reduces inflammation and promotes wound healing in burn victims, also prevents colon cancer or treats it in its early stages.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)	Cod liver oil, herring, mackerel, salmon (not farm raised), sardines, human breast milk.	Improves cardiovascular health and may prevent the accumulation of plaque (cholesterol and fat) on the walls of the arteries.
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)	Borage oil (18-26%), black currant oil (15-20%), evening primrose oil (7-10%), fish, human mother’s milk, fungal oils, spirulina (often called blue-green algae).	Reduces inflammation and prevents diseases; is much stronger than the information regarding use of GLA for these purposes.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids	Flaxseed, fish oil, cod liver oil, krill and fortified everyday foods like bread and fruit juices, whole grains, fresh fruits, vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, moderate wine consumption.	Plays an important role as structural membrane lipids, particularly in nerve tissue and the retina and are precursors to eicosanoids – highly reactive substances such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes that act locally to influence a wide range of functions in cells and tissues.
Omega-6 Fatty Acids	Cereals, eggs, poultry, most vegetable oils, whole-grain breads, baked goods, organ meats, margarine.	Reduces the aches and pains of rheumatoid arthritis, relieves the discomforts of PMS, endometriosis, and fibrocystic breasts, reduces the symptoms of eczema and psoriasis, clears up acne and rosacea, prevents and improves diabetic neuropathy.
Omega-9 Fatty Acids (Oleic Acid)	Avocado fruit, Macadamia nuts, apricot seeds, almonds, olive oil.	Lowers blood levels of cholesterol.
Vitamin F (Fatty Acids)	Evening primrose oil, grape seed oil, flaxseed oil, and oils of grains, nuts and seeds, such as soybean, walnuts, sesame, sunflower, avocados, meat and fish like salmon, trout, mackerel and tuna.	Essential fatty acids maintain the function and integrity of cell membranes, transport, breakdown and excrete cholesterol and act as precursors to prostaglandins required in many physiological functions. Regulates oxygen use, electron transport and energy production. Helps form hemoglobin, maintain exocrine and endocrine glands, makejoint lubricants. Regulates blood pressure, platelet coagulation, kidney function; helps transport cholesterol, needed by active tissues; brain, retina, adrenal, testes; helps eliminate toxic peroxides, helps prevent allergies.
Oils	Sources	Function
Borage Oil	Black currant seed oil.	Improves circulation and hormonal balance—a great choice for women with PMS symptoms.
Cod Liver Oil	Fish.	Helps delay or even reverse the destruction of joint cartilage and inflammatory pain associated with arthritic disease, improves circulation and hormonal balance—a great choice for women with PMS symptoms.
Evening Primrose Oil	A small yellow wildflower (Oenothera biennis) has been used medicinally for centuries. The oil, pressed from the seed, is rich in linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid (EFA).	Cures, treats, or prevents practically everything—from rheumatoid arthritis, breast pain, hot flashes, premenstrual syndrome, eczema, and other skin problems to diabetic neuropathy, cancer, high blood cholesterol levels, and heart disease.
Fish Oil	Menhaden, pilchard, sardine, herring, salmon and fresh tuna.	Prevents heart disease, depression, cancer; alleviates auto-immune disorders, plus many other claims.
Fish Liver Oil	High potency livers from cod, shark, halibut.	Helps regulate the rhythm of the heart, prevent cardiac arrhythmias.
Flaxseed Oil	Flaxseed oil is obtained from the seed of the flax plant. It contains 50% to 60% omega-3 fatty acids. This amount is roughly double that contained in fish oil.	Prevents heart disease and cancer. Helpful in treating high cholesterol, high blood pressure, heart disease, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), arthritis, breast cancer, depression, burns, acne, asthma, menstrual pain; also proven helpful in protecting against certain infections and treating a variety of conditions including ulcers, migraine headaches, preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, lupus, and panic attacks.
Linseed Oil.	Dried ripe linseeds	Commission E Indications—External: Local inflammation (cataplasm). Internal: Chronic constipation, colon damaged by laxative abuse, irritable colon, diverticulitis, gastritis (mucilage), irritable bowel syndrome, enteritis (mucilage).
Safflower Oil	Oil expressed from the seeds of the safflower	Beneficial for painful inflamed joints, and applied to bruises, sprains, and painful arthritis.
Wheat Germ Oil	Triticum aestivum, Triticum sativum, Triticum vulgare.	Promotes healthy skin. A natural antioxidant which helps to prevent rancidity.

Micronutrients/Minerals
Micronutrient	Sources	Function
Boron (B)	Green leafy vegetables, nuts, grains, beer, cider, wine, prunes, dates, raisins, honey, nuts, fresh fruit such as grapes and pears, beans.	Used to help with menopausal symptoms as well as maintaining healthy bones, hence its affinity to calcium and magnesium.
Calcium (Ca)	Almonds, Brazil nuts, broccoli, buchu leaves, cabbage, carob, caviar, cheese, collards, dairy foods, dandelion leaves, dulse, figs, filberts, green leafy vegetables, kale, kelp, milk, molasses, mustard greens, oats, parsley, pau d’arco bark, prunes, salmon, sardines, seafood, sesame seeds, shrimp, soybeans, tofu, turnip greens, valerian root, white oak bark, yogurt. Supplements: Bone meal, calcium amino acid chelate, calcium ascorbate, calcium carbonate, calcium caseinate, calcium citrate hydrate, calcium citrate malate (CCM), calcium gluconate, calcium lactate, di-calcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, oyster shell, tricalcium phosphate. It has been reported that the most bioavailable form of calcium is calcium citrate malate.1 Calcium carbonate is similar in bioavailability to milk.	Calcium is needed for so many different functions in the body, from bones, to blood clotting, your muscles, for the formation and maintenance of bones, the development of teeth and healthy gums, for blood clotting, stabilizes many body functions and is thought to assist in bowel cancer. It has a natural calming and tranquilizing effect and is necessary for maintaining a regular heartbeat and the transmission of nerve impulses. It helps with lowering cholesterol, muscular growth, the prevention of muscle cramps and normal blood clotting. Furthermore it also helps with protein structuring in DNA and RNA. It provides energy, breaks down fats, maintains proper cell membrane permeability, aids in neuromuscular activity and helps to keep the skin healthy. Calcium also stops lead from being absorbed into bone.
Chloride (Cl)	Table salt, sea salt, kelp, olives, tomatoes, celery.	Production of stomach acid and the transmission of nerve impulses. Helps regulate water balance in cells, acid-base balance and electrolyte balance. Necessary for the production of hydrochloric acid in stomach acid. Required for the absorption of vitamin B12 and iron. Helps stop the growth of microorganisms that enter the stomach. Activates amylases.
Chromium (Cr)	Apple peel, banana, beef, beer, blackstrap molasses, brewer’s yeast, brown sugar, butter, calves’ liver, cheese, chicken, corn, dairy products, dried beans, eggs, fish, liver, meat, mushrooms, oatstraw, oysters, potatoes with skin, seafood, shell fish, Stevia leaves, whole grains. Supplements: chromium picolinate, chromium nicolinate, chromium nicotinate, chromium (III) chloride hexahydrate, chromium amino acid chelate, GTF chromium.	Stimulates enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, and improves the effectiveness of insulin in its relationship with glucose. It competes with iron to transport protein in the blood and is involved in RNA-protein binding ability. Chromium is poorly absorbed (5% bioavailability). It is stored in the spleen, testicles, kidneys, pancreas, heart, lungs, and brain. Helps stabilize nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) against structural changes. Helps stimulate the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol in the liver.
Cobalt (Co)	Beet greens, buckwheat, cabbage, clams, dulse, figs, goldenseal, Irish moss, kelp, kidney, lettuce, liver, milk, oysters, pau d’Arco, sarsaparilla, spinach, watercress.	Cobalt is an important element in the formation of cobalamin or vitamin B12. It is not easily assimilated in the body and is stored in red blood cells, liver, plasma, spleen, kidney, and pancreas. Promotes RBC formation. Activates enzymes, replaces zinc in some enzymes.
Copper (Cu)	Alfalfa, almonds, avocados, baker’s yeast, barley, beans, beet roots, black pepper, blackstrap molasses, Brazil nuts, broccoli, cashews, cocoa, crab, dandelion leaves, garlic, grapes, green leafy vegetables, green olives, haddock, hazelnuts, herring, honey, horsetail, lentils, liver, lobster, molasses, mushrooms, mussels, nuts, oats, oranges, oysters, peanuts, pecans, radishes, raisins, sage, salmon, skullcap, seafood, sesame seeds, shrimp, soybeans, sunflower seeds, walnuts, wheat bran, wheat germ, white oak bark, yucca. Copper aspartate, copper gluconate (used in mouth deodorants), copper amino acid chelate, copper sulfate.	Copper is absorbed into the intestine and quickly moves to the blood stream. It is stored in the liver, kidneys, heart, brain, muscles, and bones. Copper aids in the formation of bones, conversion of iron into hemoglobin, and works with zinc and vitamin C for the production of elastrin. It is necessary for the production of RNA, phospholipids, protein metabolism and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Copper helps convert tyrosine into a pigment that colors the skin and hair. It is involved in the healing process, taste, healthy nerves, and the formation of collagen. Copper imbalance raises cholesterol by destroying proper HDL to LDL balance. Critical for metabolizing iron; plays a role in connective tissue formation (ie-muscle and blood vessels); protein synthesis. Necessary for the absorption & utilization of Iron; helps oxidize Vitamin C and works with Vitamin C to form Elastin, a chief component of the Elastin muscle fibers throughout the body; aids in the formation of red blood cells; helps proper bone formation & maintenance.
Fluoride (F)	Fluoridated water, apples, calves’ liver, cheese, cod, eggs, kidneys, meat, salmon, sardines, seafood, seaweed, sodium fluoride, tea, toothpaste, seaweed.	Confers resistence to tooth decay. Fluorine is present in almost all tissue, especially the teeth and bones. It is absorbed in the intestines, transported in the blood stream, stored in teeth and bones. Fluorine increases the bioavailability of calcium and helps to buffer acids present in the mouth. Helps prevent dental caries in children; Interferes with the growth and development of bacteria that causes dental plaque.
Iodine (I)	Asparagus, chard, cod, cod-liver oil, dulse, garlic, haddock, herring, iodized salts, Irish moss, kelp, lima beans, lobster, mushrooms, oysters, salmon, sea salt, seafood, seaweed, sesame seeds, shrimp, soybeans, spinach, squash, sunflower seeds, turnip greens.	Iodine is important for the development and proper function of the thyroid. It helps to metabolize fats, promotes growth, and regulates the production of energy. It is absorbed in the intestinal tract and is transported through the bloodstream to the thyroid were it becomes iodized and converted into thyroxin. Iodine is essential for absorption of carbohydrates, hair, mental health, nails, proper balance of cholesterol, proper metabolism, skin, speech, teeth, the conversion of carotene to vitamin A, and the synthesis of protein by ribosomes.
Iron (Fe)	Almonds, avocados, beans, beef, beets, blue cohosh, bran, brewer’s yeast, broccoli, butchers broom, cashews, caviar, cheddar cheese, chickweed, cocoa, dates, devil’s claw, dried fruit, dulse, eggs, egg yolk, garbanzo beans, green leafy vegetables, spinach, heart, kelp, kidneys, legumes, lentils, liver, millet, molasses, mullein, mussles, oysters, parsley, peaches, pears, pennyroyal, pistachios, potatoes, poultry, prunes, pumpkins, raisins, rice, seaweed, sesame seeds, soybeans, sunflower seeds, tongue, walnuts, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grains. Supplements: Ferric citrate, ferrous fumarate, ferrous gluconate, ferrous salt of gluconic acid, ferrous succinate, ferrous sulfate, iron amino acid chelate.	Iron plays an important role in the production of hemoglobin with protein and copper and oxygenation of red blood cells and lymphocytes. Iron improves the function of enzymes in protein metabolism and enhances the functions of calcium and copper. It is absorbed in the small intestine and stored in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and blood. Iron is needed to metabolize B vitamins.
Lithium (Li)	Sugarcane, seaweed, natural mineral waters, tobacco. Supplements: Lithium Carbonate, Lithium Chloride, Lithium Citrate, Lithium Sulfate.	It is not yet known what particular function of lithium may make it an essential nutrient. It is thought to stabilize serotonin transmission in the nervous system; it influences sodium transport; and it may even increase lymphocytic (white blood cell) proliferation and depress the suppressor cell activity, thus strengthening the immune system. There is also speculation that lithium is in some way involved in cancer genesis or prevention.
Magnesium (Mg)	Almonds, barley, blackstrap molasses, bluefish, brewer’s yeast, buckwheat, carp, cocoa, cod, cottonseed, figs, flounder, garlic, green leafy vegetables, halibut, herring, Irish moss, kelp, licorice, lima beans, meat, mackerel, millet, molasses, nettle, nuts, oat straw, oats, peaches, peanut butter, peanuts, peas, perch, seafood, sesame seeds, shrimp, snails, soybeans, sunflower seeds, swordfish, tofu, wheat, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grains. Supplements: Dolomite, magnesium amino acid chelate, magnesium ascorbate, magnesium gluconate, magnesium oxide.	Plays an important role in regulating the neuromuscular activity of the heart; maintains normal heart rhythm; necessary for proper calcium & Vitamin C metabolism; converts blood sugar into energy. Magnesium is vital for many metabolic functions such as the activation of enzymes for proper metabolism of protein and carbohydrates for energy production. It is a constituent of bones and teeth and is important for the metabolism of phosphorus, calcium, potassium, sodium, B-complex vitamins, and vitamins C and E. Magnesium is absorbed in the small intestine and vitamin D is necessary for proper utilization of the mineral. Necessary in the production of testosterone and progesterone. It is essential for normal heart beat, nerve transmission, bone growth, body temperature, and arterial health. Magnesium, in proper balance with calcium, is important for neuromuscular contractions and is vital for DNA and RNA production. Helpful in stroke prevention.
Manganese (Mn)	Avocados, barley, beans, bilberry fruit, blackberries, blackstrap molasses, blueberries, bran, brown rice, buckwheat, buchu leaves, chestnuts, cloves, coffee, egg yolks, ginger, grapevine, green leafy vegetables, hazelnuts, kelp, legumes,nuts, oatmeal, peanuts, peas, pecans, pineapples, red raspberry leaves, rice bran, rice polish, seaweed, seeds, spinach, walnuts, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grain cereals. Supplements: manganese amino acid chelate, manganese gluconate, manganese sulfate,	A cofactor in many enzyme systems including those involved in bone formation, energy production, and metabolism of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. It is essential for the utilization of choline, thiamine, biotin, and vitamins C and E. It is absorbed in the small intestine and is stored in the bones, liver , kidney, pituitary gland, and pancreas. Manganese is required for choline acetylcholine transsfer, enhances smooth muscle relaxation. Promotes normal growth and development, cell function. Manganese helps produce mucopolysaccharides, stimulates the production of cholesterol and is a co-factor in many of the body’s enzymes.
Molybdenum (Mo)	Barley, beans, buckwheat, cereal grains, green leafy vegetables, legumes, lentils, lima beans, liver, meats, milk, organ meats, peas, sunflower seeds, whole grains, yeast.	Molybdenum plays an important role in 2 enzymatic reactions. They include aldehyde oxidase which is necessary for the oxidation of fats, and xanthine oxidase necessary for the movement of iron from liver reserves and converting nucleic acid to uric acid (waste product eliminated in the urine). Molybdenum is absorbed through the intestines and stored in the liver, bones, and kidneys. It is required for proper growth and development, the metabolism of fats and nucleic acids, metabolism of nitrogen, copper, and sulfur, and normal cellular functions. Cofactor in enzymatic systems involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, sulfur-containing amino acids, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) and iron. Helps prevent cavities. Cancer-preventative (esophagus, stomach), helps detoxify or eliminate harmful sulfites from the body.
Phosphorous (P)	Beef, bran, cabbage herb, cheese, corn, cocoa, cottonseed, dairy products, dog grass, eggs, fish, fruit, garlic, legumes, liver, meat, nuts, peanuts, poultry, pumpkin seeds, rice polish, squash seeds, soda, soybeans, sunflower seeds, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grains. Supplements: Ammonium phosphate, bone meal, brewer’s yeast, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, dipotassium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, lecithin, monosodium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate.	Phosphorus is important to keep in balance with calcium and magnesium. It plays a role in every metabolic reaction in the body and is important for the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and protein for proper growth and production of energy. Phosphorus is absorbed through the intestines, transported in the bloodstream, and stored in the bones and teeth. 70% of ingested phosphorus is absorbed.
Potassium (K)	Almonds, apricots, avocados, bananas, beef, bran, Brazil nuts, brewer’s yeast, broccoli, brown rice, cabbage herb, cashews, celery herb, chard, citrus fruit, dairy foods, dates, figs, fish, fruit, garlic, grapefruit juice, green leafy vegetables, guava, legumes, lentils, meat, milk, molasses, nectarine, nuts, oranges, parsley, parsnips, peanuts, peaches, pork, potatoes, poultry, raisins, rice bran, sardines, seaweed, seeds, soybeans, spinach (fresh), squash, sunflower seeds, tomato juice, veal, walnuts, wheat bran, whole grains, yams. Supplements: potassium ascorbate, potassium aspartate, potassium benzoate, potassium carbonate, potassium chloride, potassium gluconate, potassium hydroxide.	Potassium is important for chemical reactions within the cells, and regulates the transfer of nutrients to the cells. Potassium helps to regulate water balance in the body, and the distribution of fluids on both sides of the cell walls. It is an electrolyte needed to maintain fluid balance, normal heartbeat, and nerve transmission. Potassium is absorbed through the intestines and is stored in the cells and kidneys. It is necessary for adrenal glands. Potassium is important for proper muscle contractions, normal blood pressure, growth, nerve impulses, healthy skin, cell metabolism, and enzyme reactions. Potassium increases the metabolism. Helpful in stroke prevention. Antidepressant, antihypertensive, antispasmodic.
Selenium (Se)	Barley, beer, blackstrap molasses, bran, Brazil nuts, brewer’s yeast, broccoli, brown rice, buchu leaves, butter, cabbage, catnip, celery, cereals, chicken, cider vinegar, cinnamon, clams, crab, cucumbers, dairy products, dog grass, eggs, garlic, grains, green leafy vegetables, hibiscus, ho shou wu root, kidneys, lamb, liver, lobster, meats, milk, milk thistle seeds, molasses, mushrooms, nutmeg, nuts, oats, onions, seafood, swiss chard, tuna, turnips, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grains. Supplements: selenium ascorbate, selenium amino acid chelate.	Selenium is an antioxidant that protects vitamin E from degradation. It helps to build the immune system by destroying free radicals, and aid in the production of antibodies. Selenium is absorbed through the intestines and stored in the liver, kidneys, and muscles. The lower the selenium intake the higher the incidents of cancer. Selenium fortifies heart energy cells, making sure they get enough oxygen. Selenium helps eliminate arsenic. Helpful in stroke prevention. Helps protect against the effects from arsenic, cadmium and mercury. Component of glutathione peroxidase, protecting tissues from the effects of polyunsaturated fatty acid oxidation.
Silicon (Si)	Alfalfa, beets, bell peppers, brown rice, dulse, Echinacea root, eyebright herb, goldenseal root, green leafy vegetabls, horsetail grass, liver, mother’s milk, soybeans, whole grains.	Anti-arteriosclerotic. Silicon is needed for bone structure, growth, and connective tissue production of collagen. Silicon is important for healthy nails, skin, hair, and bone formation. It is need to maintain healthy arteries and prevents cardiovascular disease. It counteracts the effects of aluminum toxicity and improves calcium intake.
Sodium (Na)	Anchovies, bacon, beef, bologna, bran, butter, Canadian bacon, clams, corned beef, dulse, green beans, green olives, ham, Irish moss, kelp, margarine, meat, milk, poultry, rose hips, salt, sardines, seafood, tomatoes. Supplements: Baking soda, monosodium glutamate, sodium ascorbate, sodium chloride.	Sodium is necessary for proper water balance in the body, transition of fluids across cell walls, and proper blood pH. Sodium works in conjunction with potassium for extracellular fluid balances. Sodium is easily absorbed in the small intestine and stomach and transported through the blood to the kidneys where it is filtered out of the body. Sodium is important for proper digestion in the stomach, nerve function, and muscle contractions. Also helps keep the blood soluble, and aids in the cleansing process of carbon dioxide from the body.
Strontium (Sr)	Trace amounts in foods from plant and animal sources.	Strontium may be essential for proper bone growth. May help prevent tooth decay.
Sulfur (S)	Beans, brussels sprouts, cabbage, clams, dairy products, eggs, fish, garlic, meat, milk, onions, soybeans, taurine, turnips, wheat. Supplements:glutathione, horsetail herb, kale, L-cysteine, L-cystine, L-lysine, L-methionine, methylsulfonylmethane (MSM).	Sulfur is found in the amino acids cysteine, cystine and methionine. Sulfur is also found in cells, hemoglobin, collagen, keratin, insulin, heparin, hair, skin, nails, among many other biological structures. Sulfur is necessary for synthesizing collagen. It is required for the metabolism of several vitamins including thiamine, biotin and pantothenic acid. It is also required for cellular respiration. Sulfur is a component of biotin, insulin, glutathione, thiamine, coenzyme A. Helps in carbohydrate metabolism, helps detoxify by converting toxins to nontoxic forms. Sulfur aids in bile secretion in the liver.
Zinc (Zn)	Beans, beef, bilberry fruit, black strap molasses, brewer’s yeast, buchu leaves, capsicum fruit, chicken heart, crab, egg yolk, fish, herring, lamb, legumes, liver, maple syrup, meats, milk, oysters, peanuts, pork, poultry, pumpkin seeds, skullcap herb, seafood, sesame seeds, soybeans, sunflower seeds, turkey, wheat bran, wheat germ, whole grains, yeast. Supplements: Zinc aspartate, zinc gluconate, zinc oxide, zinc picolinate, zinc sulfate.	Zinc is important for absorption and action of B-complex vitamins. It is required for protein synthesis, collagen formation, healthy immune system, and the ability of the body to heal from wounds. Zinc is absorbed in the small intestine and is stored in the liver, eyes, kidneys, pancreas, bones, muscles, prostate gland, sperm, nails, skin, hair, and white blood cells. Zinc inhibits 5-alpha reductase from converting testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) a form of testosterone that promotes prostate growth. Zinc increases testosterone, and sperm count. If a zinc deficiency exists sex drive is reduced in order to conserve the zinc (zinc is concentrated in semen). Zinc is involved in protein synthesis, muscle contraction, formation of insulin, maintaining acid-base balance, synthesis of DNA, brain functions. Excessive sweating leads to loss of up to 3 mg per day.

Water

In order to live, every cell in the body must be bathed in water.

Water takes an active part in many chemical reactions and is needed to carry other nutrients, to regulate body temperature, and to help eliminate wastes. Water makes up about 60 percent of an adult’s body weight. Requirements for water are met in many ways. Most fruits are more than 90 percent water.

From <http://orthomolecular.org/nutrients/index.shtml>

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VITAMINS

Vitamin C—ascorbic acid Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, L-ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbic acid, the antiscorbutic vitamin, L-xyloascorbic acid and L-threo-hex-2-uronic acidy-lactone, is a much talked about vitamin, with people claiming it as a cure-all for may diseases and problems – from cancer to the common cold. Yet, this miracle vitamin cannot be manufactured by the body, and needs to be ingested. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) is a very important essential nutrient, that is, we must obtain it from diet. It is found only in the fruit and vegetable foods and is highest in fresh, uncooked foods. Vitamin C is one of the least stable vitamins, and cooking can destroy much of this water-soluble vitamin from foods. In recent years, the C of this much-publicized vitamin has also stood for controversy. With Linus Pauling and others claiming that vitamin C has the potential to prevent and treat the common cold, flus, and cancer, all of which plague our society, concern has arisen in the medical establishment about these claims and the megadose requirements needed to achieve the hoped-for results. Some studies suggest that these claims have some validity; however, there is more personal testimony from avid users of ascorbic acid than there is irrefutable evidence. There has also been some recent research that disproves the claims about treatment and prevention of colds and cancer with vitamin C. However, in most cases, studies showing vitamin C to be ineffective using lower dosages than Dr. Pauling recommended. Overall, vitamin C research is heavily weighted to the positive side for its use in the treatment of many conditions, including the common cold. C also stands for citrus, where this vitamin is found. It could also stand for collagen, the protein “cement” that is formed with ascorbic acid as a required cofactor. Many foods contain vitamin C, and many important functions are mediated by it as well. Vitamin C is required in the synthesis of collagen in connective tissue, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, carnitine, conversion of cholesterol to bile acids and enhances iron bioavailability. Ascorbic acid is a great antioxidant and helps protect the body against pollutants. Because vitamin C is a biological reducing agent, it is also linked to prevention of degenerative diseases – such as cataracts, certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Ascorbic acid also promotes healthy cell development, proper calcium absorption, normal tissue growth and repair, such as healing of wounds and burns. It assists in the prevention of blood clotting and bruising, and strengthening the walls of the capillaries. Vitamin C is needed for healthy gums, to help protect against infection, and assisting with clearing up infections and is thought to enhance the immune system and help reduce cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and preventing arteriosclerosis. When there is a shortage of VITAMIN C, various problems can arise, although scurvy is the only disease clinically treated with vitamin C. However, a shortage of vitamin C may result in “pinpoint” hemorrhages under the skin and a tendency to bruise easily, poor wound healing, soft and spongy bleeding gums and loose teeth. Edema (water retention) also happens with a shortage of vitamin C, and weakness, a lack of energy, poor digestion, painful joints and bronchial infection and colds are also indicative of an under-supply. Since ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin, toxic levels are not built up or stored in the body, and any excess is lost mostly through urine. If extremely large amounts are taken gastrointestinal problems may appear, but will normalize when the intake is cut or reduced. To determine a level where a person might experience discomfort is difficult, since some people can easily stomach up to 25,000 mg per day, while others start having a problem at 600 or 1,000 mg. Some people using mega dose therapy of vitamin C may have side effects such as gastrointestinal complaints including diarrhea, nausea and abdominal cramps. These side effects normally stop as soon as high potency intake is reduced or stopped. Good sources of vitamin C are green leafy vegetables, berries, citrus fruits, guavas, tomatoes, melons, papayas, etc. Ongoing research is looking at the clinical use of vitamin C in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Vitamin A — retinol and beta-carotene

Vitamin A was the first vitamin officially named and given the letter A. Retinol, another name for vitamin A, relates to its importance in vision. Several carotene pigments found in foods, mainly yellow and orange vegetables and fruits, can be converted to vitamin A. Beta-carotene is the most available and also the one that yields the highest amount of A.

Vitamin A is absorbed primarily from the small intestine. As a fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin A can be stored in the body and used when there is decreased intake. About 90 percent of the storable vitamin A is in the liver; it is also stored in the kidneys, lungs, eyes, and the fat tissue.

Vitamin A is required for night vision, and for a healthy skin. It assists the immune system, and because of its antioxidant properties is great to protect against pollution and cancer formation and other diseases. It also assists your sense of taste as well as helping the digestive and urinary tract and many believe that it helps slow aging.

It is required for development and maintenance of the epithelial cells, in the mucus membranes, and your skin, and is important in the formation of bone and teeth, storage of fat and the synthesis of protein and glycogen.

A deficiency of vitamin A may lead to eye problems with dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea, dry skin and hair, night blindness as well as poor growth. Dry itchy eyes that tire easily are normally a warning of too little vitamin A. If the deficiency becomes severe, the cornea can ulcerate and permanent blindness can follow.

Abscesses forming in the ear, sinusitis, frequent cold and respiratory infections as well as skin disorders, such as acne, boils and a bumpy skin, as well as weight loss might be indicative of the vitamin being in short supply. Insomnia, fatigue and reproductive difficulties may also be indicative of the shortage of vitamin. Your hair and scalp can also become dry with a deficiency, especially if protein is also lacking.

Vitamin A is essential for vision, adequate growth, and tissue differentiation. Vitamin A has excellent antioxidant properties that help neutralize free-radicals. Vitamin A stimulates the production of mucous, and is absorbed by the body 3-5 hours after ingestion. The conversion and absorption of carotene takes 6-7 hours after ingestion; approximately 1/3 of carotene in food is converted into provitamin A. Taking vitamin A and iron together helps overcome iron deficiency more effectively than iron supplements alone. Vitamin A is essential in the conversion of cholesterol into female estrogens and male androgens. Thyroxine, a thyroid hormone, stimulates the conversion of carotene into a usable nutrient, fat-splitting enzymes and bile salts convert carotene. An adequate supply of zinc is needed so that the liver can mobilize vitamin A out of its storage depots.

Dosages exceeding 15,000 IU per day must be taken under medical supervision. Toxicity can appear in some individuals at relatively low dosages and the symptoms may include nausea, dizziness, menstrual problems, skin changes and dryness, itchiness, irritability, vomiting, headaches. Long term use can cause hair loss, bone and muscle pain, headaches, liver damage, and an increase in blood lipid concentrations. Pregnant women must be careful as a high intake of this vitamin can cause birth defects.

Pro-vitamin A – beta-carotene does not cause toxicity. Be careful if you in the unlikely event run across polar bear on a menu — 500 gram (about ½ a pound) of polar bear liver will deliver about 9,000,000 IU to your diet — a very lethal dose. Headaches, blurred vision, loss of hair, drowsiness and diarrhea, enlargement of the spleen and liver can all be indications when your intake is too high.

More of this vitamin is required when you consume alcohol, on a low-fat diet, or a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, if you smoke or live in a polluted area. It may also be indicated if you suffer from diabetes or have an under-active thyroid gland. Be careful of vitamin A in pregnancy.

Liver, milk, egg yolk, carrots, dark green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits are high in vitamin A or beta-carotene.

Vitamin B1—thiamine, thiamin

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine or thiamin) supports the nervous system and mental attitude. Its odor and flavor are similar to yeast. Thiamine can be destroyed by the cooking process, especially by boiling or moist heat, but less by dry heat, such as baking.

Thiamine is essential for carbohydrate metabolism through its coenzyme functions. Coenzymes are “helper molecules” which activate enzymes, the proteins that control the thousands of biochemical processes occurring in the body. The thiamine-coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate or TPP, is the key for several reactions in the breakdown of glucose to energy. TPP acts as coenzyme in oxidative decarboxylation and transketolase reactions. Thiamine also plays a role in the conduction of nerve impulses and in aerobic metabolism. Older people absorb thiamine less efficiently.

Thiamine is lost in cooking and is depleted by use of sugar, coffee, tannin from black teas, nicotine, and alcohol, so it is necessary to insure that intake of thiamine is an optimal level.

Like other B vitamins, thiamine is needed in regularly. Excess thiamine is eliminated in the urine and sweat.

Thiamin is also a miraculous nutrient. Somebody suffering from beriberi, scarcely able to lift his/her head from the pillow, will respond quickly from injected thiamin. The person will be on his/her feet within a matter of hours.

Thiamin may enhance circulation, helps with blood formation and the metabolism of carbohydrates. It is also required for the health of the nervous system and is used in the biosynthesis of a number of cell constituents, including the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). It is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and therefore plays a part in digestion.

It is also great for the brain and may help with depression and assist with memory and learning. In children it is required for growth and has shown some indication to assist in arthritis, cataracts, as well as infertility.

A deficiency will result in beriberi, and minor deficiencies may be indicated with extreme fatigue, irritability, constipation, edema and an enlarged liver. Forgetfulness, gastrointestinal disturbances, heart changes, irritability, labored breathing and loss of appetite may also be experienced. With too little thiamin around a person may also experience nervousness, numbness of the hands and feet, pain and sensitivity, poor coordination, tingling sensations, weak and sore muscles, general weakness and severe weight loss.

When taking alcohol, antacids and birth control pills or if you have hormone replacement therapy, you need to look at your thiamin intake. People suffering from depression or anxiety and those passing large volumes of urine, or suffering from an infection may all require more thiamine.

Sunflower seeds, peanuts, wheat bran, beef liver, pork, seafood, eggyolk and beans all contain good amounts of thiamin.

It is thought that thiamin can be useful for motion sickness in air and sea travel, and that this vitamin also repels insects when excreted through the skin.

Vitamin B2—riboflavin

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) is an orange-yellow crystal. B2 is stable to heat, acid, and oxidation. It is, however, sensitive to light, especially ultraviolet light, as in sunlight. So foods containing even moderate amounts of riboflavin (for example, milk) need to be protected from sunlight. Only a little of the B2 in foods is lost in the cooking water.

Riboflavin acts as an intermediary in the transfer of electrons in numerous essential oxidation-reduction reactions and participates in many metabolic reactions of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Riboflavin is necessary for cell respiration. It works with enzymes in the utilization of cell oxygen. Riboflavin is easily absorbed through the walls of the small intestine where it is carried by the blood to the tissues of the body, used, and then excess is excreted in the urine. Riboflavin coenzymes are essential for the conversion of pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and folic acid into their coenzyme forms and for the transformation of tryptophan into niacin. Riboflavin is not stored in great quantity, thus must be supplied regularly. Riboflavin is necessary for the maintenance of good vision, skin, nails, and hair. It helps to prevent cancer and helps release energy from food. Riboflavin also helps maintain healthy respiratory, the nervous system, digestive and circulatory mucous membrane linings. Riboflavin promotes normal growth and development.

Excess B2 is eliminated in the urine, which can give it a yellow-green fluorescent glow, commonly seen after taking B complex supplements. Riboflavin is not stored in the body, except for a small quantity in the liver and kidneys, so it is needed regularly in the diet.

It is required by the body to use oxygen and the metabolism of amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. Riboflavin is further needed to activate vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), helps to create niacin and assists the adrenal gland. It may be used for red blood cell formation, antibody production, cell respiration, and growth. It eases watery eye fatigue and may be helpful in the prevention and treatment of cataracts. Vitamin B2 is required for the health of the mucus membranes in the digestive tract and helps with the absorption of iron and vitamin B6. Although it is needed for periods of rapid growth, it is also needed when protein intake is high, and is most beneficial to the skin, hair and nails.

A shortage of this vitamin may manifest itself as cracks and sores at the corners of the mouth, eye disorders, inflammation of the mouth and tongue, and skin lesions. Dermatitis, dizziness, hair loss, insomnia, light sensitivity, poor digestion, retarded growth, and slow mental responses have also been reported. Burning feet can also be indicative of a shortage.

The limited capacity to absorb orally administered riboflavin precludes its potential for harm. Riboflavin intake of many times the RDA is without demonstrable toxicity. A normal yellow discoloration of the urine is seen with an increased intake of this vitamin but it is normal and harmless.

Extra might be needed when consuming alcohol, antibiotics, and birth control pills or doing strenuous exercise. If you are under a lot of stress or on a calorie-restricted diet, this vitamin could also be of use.

Organ meats, nuts, cheese, eggs, milk and lean meat are great sources of riboflavin, but is also available in good quantities in green leafy vegetables, fish, legumes, whole grains, and yogurt.

Vitamin B3—niacin, niacinamide, nicotinic acid

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) is used commonly to refer to two different compounds, nicotinic acid and niacinamide. B3 was first isolated during oxidation of nicotine from tobacco and was thus given the name nicotinic acid vitamin, shortened to niacin. It is not, however, the same as or even closely related to the molecule nicotine. Niacin, as nicotinic acid or niacinamide, is converted in the body to the active forms, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and a phosphorylated form (NADP).

Niacin is one of the most stable of the B vitamins. It is resistant to the effects of heat, light, air, acid, and alkali. A white crystalline substance that is soluble in both water and alcohol, niacin and niacinamide are both readily absorbed from the small intestine. Small amounts may be stored in the liver, but most of the excess is excreted in the urine.

Niacin is involved in reactions that generate energy in tissues by the biochemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The two coenzymes of niacin, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), are essential for utilizing the metabolic energy of foods. Niacin is essential for growth and is involved in the synthesis of hormones. Niacin is absorbed in the intestine and stored in the liver. Excessive niacin is excreted in the urine. Helps synthesize DNA.

Vitamin B3 is required for cell respiration, helps in the release of energy and metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, proper circulation and healthy skin, functioning of the nervous system, and normal secretion of bile and stomach fluids. It is used in the synthesis of sex hormones, treating schizophrenia and other mental illnesses, and a memory-enhancer.

Nicotinic acid (but not nicotinamide) given in drug dosage improves the blood cholesterol profile, and has been used to clear the body of organic poisons, such as certain insecticides. People report more mental alertness when this vitamin is in sufficient supply.

A deficiency may cause pellagra, the classic niacin deficiency disease, and is characterized by bilateral dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia. A shortage of niacin may be indicated with symptoms such as canker sores, depression, diarrhea, dizziness, fatigue, halitosis, headaches, indigestion, insomnia, limb pains, loss of appetite, low blood sugar, muscular weakness, skin eruptions, and inflammation.

Nicotinic acid, but not nicotinamide in doses larger than 200 mg causes flushing by dilating the blood vessels, which can also cause the blood pressure to drop. These flushes are normally harmless. Large dosages can also cause itching, elevated blood glucose, peptic ulcers and liver damage.

Consuming alcohol and not having enough protein in your diet may increase your need for niacin. People with diabetes, glaucoma, any liver disease or peptic ulcers should be careful of niacin supplementation.

Liver, lean meat, poultry, fish, rabbit, nuts, peanut yeast, meats including liver, cereals, legumes, asparagus, seeds, milk, green leafy vegetables, and fish. Your daily cup of coffee also provides about 3 milligrams of niacin.

Vitamin B5—pantothenic acid

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid), another of the B complex vitamins, is a yellow viscous oil found usually as the calcium or sodium salt—that is, calcium pantothenate. It is present in all living cells and is very important to metabolism where it functions as part of the molecule called coenzyme A or CoA. Pantothenic acid is found in yeasts, molds, bacteria, and plant and animal cells, as well as in human blood plasma and lymph fluid.

B5 is stable to moist heat and oxidation or reduction (adding or subtracting an electron), though it is easily destroyed by acids (such as vinegar) or alkalis (such as baking soda) and by dry heat. Over half of the pantothenic acid in wheat is lost during milling, and about one-third is degraded in meat during cooking. In many whole foods, vitamin B5 is readily available.

Pantothenic acid is synthesized by bacterial flora in the intestines. Pantothenic acid, as a constituent of coenzyme A, plays a key role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and is therefore important for the maintenance and repair of all cells and tissue. It is involved in reactions that supply energy, in the synthesis of such vital compounds as sterols (cholesterol), hormones (growth, stress and sex hormones), neurotransmitters acetylcholine), phospholipids (components of cell membranes), porphyrin (component of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying red blood cell pigment) and antibodies, and in the metabolism of drugs (sulfonamides). It is released from coenzyme A in food by a series of enzyme reactions and then absorbed into the portal circulation and transported to the tissues, where resynthesis of the coenzyme occurs. It stimulates the adrenal glands and increases the production of cortisone for healthy nerves and skin. Another essential role of pantothenic acid is its participation in acyl carrier protein, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of fatty acids.

Vitamin B5 plays an important role in the secretion of hormones, such as cortisone because of the role it plays in supporting the adrenal gland. These hormones assist the metabolism, help to fight allergies and are beneficial in the maintenance of healthy skin, muscles and nerves. Pantothenic acid is also used in the release of energy as well as the metabolism of fat, protein and carbohydrates. It is used in the creation of lipids, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones and hemoglobin. Some are of the opinion that pantothenic acid is also helpful to fight wrinkles as well as graying of the hair.

With Vitamin B5 in short supply symptoms like fatigue, headaches, nausea, tingling in the hands, depression, personality changes and cardiac instability have been reported. Frequent infection, fatigue, abdominal pains, sleep disturbances and neurological disorders, including numbness, paresthesia (abnormal sensation such as “burning feet” syndrome), muscle weakness and cramps are also possible indications that this nutrient is in short supply. Biochemical changes include increased insulin sensitivity, lowered blood cholesterol, decreased serum potassium, and failure of adrenocorticotropin to induce eosinopenia.

It does not appear to be toxic in high dosage, although diarrhea, digestive disturbances and water retention have been reported on dosage exceeding 10 g a day. Taking 1,500 mg a day over an extended period may cause sensitivity to the teeth.

Pantothenic acid can be lost in cooking – particularly with roasting or milling, as well as when exposed to acids like vinegar, or alkali such as baking soda. It is also destroyed to a large degree in canning.

Beef, brewer’s yeast, eggs, fresh vegetables, kidneys, legumes, liver, mushrooms, nuts, pork, royal jelly, saltwater fish, torula yeast, whole rye flour, and whole wheat.

Vitamin B6—pyridoxine

Vitamin B6, also known as pyridoxine, is part of the B group vitamins and is water-soluble and is required for both mental and physical health.

Pyridoxine is required for the balancing of hormonal changes in women as well as assisting the immune system and the growth of new cells. It is also used in the processing and metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, while assisting with controlling your mood as well as your behavior. Pyridoxine might also be of benefit for children with learning difficulties, as well as assisting in the prevention of dandruff, eczema and psoriasis.

It assists in the balancing of sodium and potassium as well as promotes red blood cell production. It is further involved in the nucleic acids RNA as well as DNA. It is further linked to cancer immunity and fights the formation of the toxic chemical homocysteine, which is detrimental to the heart muscle.

Women in particular may suffer from pre-menstrual fluid retention, severe period pains, emotional PMS symptoms, premenstrual acne and nausea in early pregnancy. Mood swings, depression as well as loss of sexual drive is sometimes noted when pyridoxine is in short supply and the person is on hormone replacement therapy or on birth control pills.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is a very important B vitamin, especially for women. It seems to be connected somehow to hormone balance and water shifts in women. Vitamin B6 is actually three related compounds, all of which are found in food—pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. Pyridoxal is the predominant biologically active form; however, in vitamin supplements, pyridoxine is the form used because it is the least expensive to produce commercially. Vitamin B6 is stable in acid, somewhat less stable in alkali, and is fairly easily destroyed with ultraviolet light, such as sunlight, and during the processing of food. It is also lost in cooking or with improper food storage.

The major metabolic function of vitamin B6 is as a coenzyme. It plays an important role in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism. It must be present for the production of antibodies and red blood cells. Its major functions are the production of epinephrine, serotonin, and the conversion of tryptophan (essential amino acid) to niacin which is necessary for the synthesis and functions of DNA and RNA, the breakdown of glycogen for energy from the liver and muscles, and the formation of the vitamin nicotinic acid. Vitamin B6 is usually excreted in the urine 8 hours after digestion, and fasting and reducing diets can deplete the bodies B6 supply. Pyridoxine helps reduce prolactin levels (prolactin is linked to production of DHT) thus helping reduce BPH. It reduces levels of homocysteine (amino acid that encourages arterial plaque buildup). B6 is required to make serotonin from l-tryptophan, and increases serotonin functioning. Vitamin B6 helps maintain the balance of sodium and potassium, and regulate the body fluids and promote normal functions of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems. It is required for the proper absorption of vitamin B12, and production of HCl. B6 is required to metabolize magnesium and zinc.

Vitamin B6 deficiency symptoms will be very much like those of B2 and B3. Vitamin B6 is needed by the body to manufacture its own B3 vitamin. Irritability, nervousness and insomnia as well as general weakness, skin changes such as dermatitis and acne as well asthma and allergies might develop when pyridoxine is in short supply. Symptoms may include nails that are ridged, an inflamed tongue as well as changes to your bones, which can include osteoporosis and arthritis. Kidney stones may also appear.

Should you be taking antidepressants, contraceptive pills or be on hormone replacement therapy you may need more of this vitamin. As this vitamin is readily lost in the urine, it must be taken regularly to ensure an adequate amount in the body. Anybody on a very high protein diet, using alcohol, or allergic to MSG (mono sodium glutamate) and/or tartrazine may also consider increasing their vitamin B6 intake.

Good sources to obtain pyridoxine from are brewer’s yeast, eggs, chicken, carrots, fish, liver, kidneys, peas, wheat germ, walnuts,

Exercising may aid the production of the active form of vitamin B6.

Vitamin B9—folic acid, folacin, folate

Folic acid, also known as Vitamin B9, is also referred to as folacin or folate and its chemical name is pteroylglutamic acid. Folic Acid (Folacin or Folate) is another of the key water-soluble B vitamins. It received its name from the Latin word folium, meaning “foliage,” because folic acid is found in nature¹s leafy green vegetables, such as spinach, kale, and beet greens. Folacin, a derivative of folic acid, is a dull yellow crystalline substance made up chemically of a pteridine molecule, para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), and glutamic acid. It is actually a “vitamin within a vitamin,” with PABA as part of its structure.

Folic acid is very sensitive and is easily destroyed in a variety of ways, such as by light, heat, any type of cooking, or an acid pH below 4; it can even be lost from foods when they are stored at room temperature for long periods. The potency of this B vitamin is diminished in most food processing and food preparation.

Folic acid acts as a coenzyme with vitamins C and B12 in numerous essential metabolic reactions. It acts as a carbon carrier in the formation of heme (iron containing protein in hemoglobin) and is necessary for the formation of red blood cells. Folic acid is required to make “SAMe” (S-adenosyl methionine). It is involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids, is essential for proper growth. 1/2 of all women are deficient in folic acid. Women of child-bearing years should consider folic acid supplementation to avoid the possibilities of bearing children with neural tube defects and birth defects. Helps reduce homocysteine levels (amino acid that encourages arterial plaque buildup). Helps prevent spina bifida, cleft palate and cleft lip formation.

Folic acid is required for DNA synthesis and cell growth and is important for red blood cell formation, energy production as well as the forming of amino acids. Folic acid is essential for creating heme, the iron containing substance in hemoglobin, crucial for oxygen transport.

It is important for healthy cell division and replication, since its involvement as coenzyme for RNA and DNA synthesis. It is also required for protein metabolism and in treating folic acid anemia. Folic acid also assists in digestion, and the nervous system, and works at improving mental as well as emotional health. This nutrient may be effective in treating depression and anxiety.

A deficiency of folic acid in an unborn baby may increase the risk of the baby being born with spina bifida and other serious defects of the nervous system. When deficient of folic acid, you might suffer from fatigue, acne, a sore tongue, cracking at the corners of your mouth (same as deficiency of vitamin B2, vitamin B6 as well as iron). Long term deficiency may result in anemia and later in osteoporosis, as well as cancer of the bowel and cervix.

Pregnant women are sometimes advised to take a small supplement of folic acid to help prevent spina bifida and other congenital nervous disorders, and may also assist to reduce the risk of toxemia in pregnancy, premature labor and hemorrhaging. It is also thought to enhance the production of milk after delivery. Sufferers of psoriasis may consider taking extra folic acid, people under stress or anyone consuming alcohol. Women on birth control pills or hormone replacement therapy may benefit from folic acid, as well as children if they consume goat’s milk instead of cow’s milk.

Fresh green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli contain folic acid. It is also found in fruit, starchy vegetables, beans, whole grains and liver.

Vitamin D—calciferol

Vitamin D (Calciferol) refers to several related fat-soluble vitamin variants, all of which are sterol (cholesterol-like) substances. D2, or activated ergo-calciferol, is the major synthetic form of provitamin D; D3, or cholecalciferol, is found in animals, mainly in fish liver oils. These are converted in the liver and kidneys to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, and 1, 25-dihydroxylcholecalciferol, the major circulating active forms of vitamin D.

Vitamin D is also known as the “sunshine” vitamin because it is actually manufactured in the human skin when in contact with the ultraviolet light in the sun¹s rays. The sunlight interacts with 7-dehydrocholesterol to form cholecalciferol, which is then transferred to the liver or kidneys and converted to active vitamin D. Wintertime, clouds, smog, and darkly pigmented skin reduce the body¹s production of the “sunshine” vitamin.

Vitamin D absorption takes place in the upper part of the small intestine with the aid of bile salts. Vitamin D is stored in the liver where it is metabolized into calcidiol. Further metabolic reactions take place in the kidneys where it is converted to calcitriol and then absorbed into the blood where it is stored in fat and muscle. Calcitriol is a hormone that helps regulate the body’s calcium needs.

Vitamin D helps with increasing the absorption of calcium, assists in bone growth and the integrity of bone and promotes strong teeth. It also helps regulate the amount of phosphorus in the body as well as assisting in a healthy heart and nervous system. In some recent studies it has also shown great promise in assisting psoriasis, the immune system, thyroid function, as well as normal blood clotting.

A shortage can lead to softening of the bones and muscle twitching and convulsions, and in children it causes rickets, resulting in bowed legs. In adults, the shortage causes loss of minerals from the bones, (osteomalacia) where the bones are sore, tender, and weak muscles with the possibility of deafness developing. In older people, osteoporosis may appear when protein is also lost from the bone. Vitamin D in short supply is also linked to having a burning sensation in the mouth and throat, diarrhea, insomnia and visual problems.

Some clinical guidelines for toxicity are sometimes set at 5,000 to 10,000 iu per day to cause toxicity, but other researchers place the value much higher to reach toxicity. You are however advised to keep your supplement intake to no more than 600 iu per day. Having too much vitamin D in your system could leave a too elevated calcium level, a lower appetite, increased thirst, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, abdominal pain. A long-term effect of too much vitamin D is the deposit of calcium in soft tissues of the body including the blood vessel walls and kidneys where it can cause serious damage.

When you are very seldom exposed to sunlight, or if you always wear sunscreens with a SPF factor higher than 8, you might need extra vitamin D. This is also the case if you are on a strict vegan diet. Older people are also advised to check their level of vitamin D. People with compromised kidneys or liver are at risk of too little of this vitamin, since the kidneys and liver are required to activate this vitamin in processes taking place in those organs.

Vitamin D is present in fatty fish like kipper, sardines, salmon, tuna and mackerel, liver, egg yolk and butter. Smaller amounts are also present in dark leafy vegetables.

Vitamin E—tocopherol

Vitamin E has earned itself a reputation—from spicing up your sex life to banning wrinkles and old age. One of the most important functions of this vitamin is its antioxidant properties. Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that includes eight naturally occurring compounds in two classes designated as tocopherols and tocotrienols. Vitamin E is an effective chain-breaking, lipid-soluble antioxidant in biological membranes, and aids in membrane stability.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol) is a light yellow oil, a fat-soluble vitamin, that is actually a family of compounds, the tocopherols, found in nature. Alphatoxopherol is the most common and the most active of the seven currently described forms (alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta). Specifically, d-alpha tocopherol is the most potent form, more active than the synthetic dl-alpha tocopherol.

Vitamin E was discovered in 1922 with experiments on rats. When fed a purified diet devoid of vitamin E, the rats became infertile. Wheat germ oil added to their diet restored their fertility. Later, the oil-based substance was isolated and called the “antisterility” vitamin. (Tokos and phero are the Greek words for “offspring” and “to bear,” so tocopherol literally means “to bear children.”) Though there is no clear deficiency disease in humans, vitamin E is well accepted as an essential vitamin. There is some question, however, as to whether vitamin E is needed for fertility. From general public experience, though, it seems to be clear that vitamin E makes a difference to many. The average diet today contains much less natural vitamin E than it did 50 years ago; we will see soon why, and what vitamin E actually does in the body.

Vitamin E plays an important role in protecting the body tissues from damaging reactions caused by free-radicals, which arise from many normal metabolic functions. Free-radicals are molecules that are energized at the loss of an electron. They become energetic and unstable and will react with any other molecule to acquire another electron. Free-radicals are responsible for many types of cancer, DNA damage, and blood clots. Vitamin E is a strong antioxidant and it helps prolong the life of red blood cells, it plays an essential role in cellular respiration. It protects biological membranes such as those found in the nerves, muscles, and cardiovascular system. It helps the body effectively use and store vitamin A and protects B-complex and vitamin C from oxidation reactions.

Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant, protects your cells from oxidation, and neutralizes unstable free radicals, which can cause damage. This is done by the vitamin E giving up one of its electrons to the electron deficient free radical, making it more stable. While Vitamin E performs its antioxidant functions, it also protects the other antioxidants from being oxidized.

This antioxidant capability is then also great in helping to prevent degenerative diseases, including heart disease, strokes, arthritis, senility, diabetes and cancer. It also assists in fighting heart disease and cancers and is essential for red blood cells, helps with cellular respiration and protects the body from pollution, especially the lungs. Vitamin E is also useful in preventing blood clots from forming and promotes fertility, reduces and/or prevents hot flushes in menopause. An increase in stamina and endurance is also attributed to Vitamin E.

Vitamin E is also used topically to great effect for skin treatments—in helping the skin look younger, promoting healing and cutting down the risk of scar tissue forming. Used on the skin it is also reported to help with eczema, skin ulcers, cold sores and shingles.

Deficiency of Vitamin E is not common, and the symptoms not very clear cut, but may include fatigue, inflamed varicose veins, wounds healing slowly, premature aging and sub-fertility. When Vitamin E is in short supply symptoms may include acne, anemia, muscle disease, dementia, cancers, gallstones, shortened red blood cell life span, spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), and uterine degeneration.

Vitamin E deficiencies are a rupture of RBC’s resulting from their increased fragility, reduction of membrane stability and a shrinkage in collagen may result in a tendency toward muscular wasting or abnormal fat deposits in the muscles and an increased demand for oxygen. Without sufficient E in the body, the essential fatty acids are altered so that blood cells break down and hemoglobin formation is impaired. Several amino acids cannot be utilized, and pituitary and adrenal glands reduce their level of functioning, iron absorption and hemoglobin formation are impaired. A severe deficiency can cause damage to liver and kidneys. In gastrointestinal disease, a prolonged deficiency can cause faulty absorption of fat and of fat-soluble vitamins, possibly resulting in cystic fibrosis, blockage of bile ducts and chronic inflammation of the pancreas. Serious deficiencies in men can lead to degeneration of tissues in the testes possibly leading to sterility. Women severely deficient in E cannot carry a pregnancy term successfully and often are accompanied by miscarriages. Hemorrhaging can occur in newborn infants who lack vitamin E, and blood cells of E deficient babies are prone to weakness (hemolysis). Deficiencies can result in nephritis caused by kidney tubules plugged up with dead cells so urine cannot pass.

Toxicity is not easily reached. High intakes may induce diarrhea, nausea or abdominal wind. People on anticoagulant medication should not take more than 1,200 iu per day.

When your diet is high in refined carbohydrates, fried foods and fat, or you are taking a birth control pill or hormone replacement therapy, then a supplement of Vitamin E might be called for. People suffering from pre-menstrual cramps, menopausal hot flushes, after a stroke or suffering from a heart disease might benefit from Vitamin E. It might also be beneficial to relieve painful or swollen joints, if you are exposed to pollution (that is about all of us), suffer from poor circulation or from Dupuytren’s disease, which is a thickening of the ligaments in the hands.

Vitamin E is found in nuts, oils, vegetables, sunflower seeds, whole grains, spinach, oils, seeds, wheat oils, asparagus, avocado, beef, seafood, apples, carrots, celery, etc .

Vitamin E is lost in food processing which includes milling, cooking, freezing, long storage periods and when exposed to air. Vitamin E should not be taken together with inorganic iron supplements as it may destroy the vitamin, while organic iron, such as ferrous gluconate and ferrous fumarate does not affect the vitamin.

When buying a supplement you often see “d-alpha-tocopherol” on the list of ingredients – that means that the Vitamin E is from natural sources, whereas “dl-alpha-tocopherol” will indicate that it is from synthetic origin. As such the origin of the vitamin does not influence the efficiency thereof.

Vitamin H—biotin

Biotin, referred to as Vitamin H, is part of the Vitamin B complex group which was discovered by the deficiency symptoms created through consuming large amounts (about 30 percent of the diet) of raw eggs. Avidin, a protein and carbohydrate molecule in the egg white, binds with biotin in the stomach and decreases its absorption. Cooking destroys the avidin, so the only concern about this interaction is with raw egg consumption. Otherwise, biotin is one of the most stable of the B vitamins.

It is hard to obtain enough biotin from the diet. Luckily, our friendly intestinal bacteria (lactobacillin) produce biotin. Biotin is needed for fat production and in the synthesis of fatty acids. It also helps incorporate amino acids into protein and facilitates the synthesis of the pyrimidines, part of nucleic acids, and therefore helps the formation of DNA and RNA.

Biotin forms part of several enzyme systems and is necessary for normal growth and body function. It helps in the synthesis of fatty acids, in energy metabolism, and in the synthesis of amino acids and glucose. Promotes normal health of sweat glands, bone marrow, male gonads, blood cells, nerve tissue, skin, hair.

Vitamin H is used in cell growth, the production of fatty acids, metabolism of fats, and proteins. It plays a role in the Kreb cycle, which is the process in which energy is released from food. Biotin is also indicated for healthy hair and skin, healthy sweat glands, nerve tissue, and bone marrow, and assisting with muscle pain. Vitamin H not only assists in various metabolic chemical conversions, but also helps with the transfer of carbon dioxide. Biotin is also helpful in maintaining a steady blood sugar level.

Although a shortage of Biotin is very rare, it can happen and may result in dry scaly skin, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, mental depression as well as tongue inflammation and high cholesterol, alopecia, anemia, anorexia, dry scaly dermatitis, fatigue, glossitis, hypercholesterolemia, loss of taste, myalgia, nausea, pallor, panic, skin disorders, sleepiness, smooth and pale tongue.

Bodybuilders and athletes consuming raw eggs should be careful of not running into a biotin shortage, since raw eggs contain avidin, which binds with the biotin, making it impossible to be absorbed by the body. Long-term users of antibiotics may also have to look at their biotin levels.

Biotin is present in cheese, beef liver, cauliflower, eggs, mushrooms, chicken breasts, salmon, spinach, brewer’s yeast, nuts and can be manufactured in the body should a small shortfall occur.

Biotin should be taken with the B-group vitamins, but Vitamin C, Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), Vitamin B12 and sulfur are good companions to it. A tricologist wil sometimes add biotin to the diet of a patient suffering from alopecia, to help with severe hair loss, but it must be in the right quantities to satisfy the inter-dependence of other nutrients,such as those found in hair, skin and nail supplements.

It seems that biotin may affect hair color, together with PABA, folic acid and pantothenic acid. Some research had varying results with biotin supplements in returning hair to it original color. This has proved only successful to a limited degree and only when natural vitamins were used, as the synthetic vitamins did not influence the results very much.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K, a fat-soluble vitamin, is absorbed in the presence of bile, pancreatic juices, and is enhanced by dietary fat. Once absorbed, vitamin K is transported by chylomicrons which are microscopic lipid particles that transport fat-soluble components through the lymph. Vitamin K is moderately stable to heat, but unstable to light, acid, and alkali conditions.

Vitamin K is found in nature in two forms—K1, also called phylloquinone, is found in plants; and vitamin K2, also called menaquinone, which can be synthesized by many bacteria. Vitamin K3, menadione, is a synthetic form of vitamin K which is manmade.

Vitamin K, a group of three related substances, is the last of the fat-soluble vitamins, completing the family that also includes vitamins A, D, E, and F. This nutrient, both found in nature and made in the body, helps phylloquinone, the natural vitamin K found in alfalfa and other foods.It was discovered in Denmark and labeled vitamin K for the Danish word Koagulation. Food-source phylloquinone is termed K1, while the menaquinone produced by our intestinal bacteria is labeled vitamin K2. A synthetic compound with the basic structure of the quinones is menadione, or vitamin K3. It has twice the activity of the natural Ks and is used therapeutically in people who may not use natural vitamin K well, such as those with decreased bile acid secretion.

All vitamin K variants are fat soluble and stable to heat. Alkalis, strong acids, radiation, and oxidizing agents can destroy vitamin K. It is absorbed from the upper small intestine with the help of bile or bile salts and pancreatic juices and then carried to the liver for the synthesis of prothrombin, a key blood-clotting factor. High intake (as with supplementation) of vitamin E or calcium may reduce vitamin K absorption. Vitamin K is stored in small amounts; most is excreted after therapeutic doses.

Vitamin K is used in the body to control blood clotting and is essential for synthesizing the liver protein that controls the clotting. It is involved in creating the important prothrombin, which is the precursor to thrombin—a very important factor in blood clotting. It is also involved in bone formation and repair. In the intestines it also assists in converting glucose to glycogen, this can then be stored in the liver. There are some indications that Vitamin K may decrease the incidence or severity of osteoporosis and slow bone loss.

A deficiency of this vitamin in newborn babies results in hemorrhagic disease, as well as post-operative bleeding and hematuria while muscle hematomas and inter-cranial hemorrhages have been reported. A shortage of this vitamin may manifest itself in nosebleeds, internal hemorrhaging.

Toxicity does not easily occur with normal dietary intake of this vitamin, but can happen if synthetic compound vitamin K 3 is taken. High to toxic uptake in the synthetic form can cause flushing and sweating. Jaundice and anemia may also develop. If you are taking anti-coagulant (to prevent blood clotting) medication, consult your medical practitioner before taking a Vitamin K supplement.

This nutrient can be destroyed by freezing and radiation as well as air pollution. Absorption may be decreased when rancid fats are present, as well as excessive refined sugar, antibiotics, high dosages of vitamin E, or calcium and mineral oils.

Vitamin K is found in leafy vegetables, cheese and liver. It is also found in asparagus, coffee, bacon and green tea. Yogurt, kefir, and acidophilus milk may help to increase the functioning of the intestinal bacterial flora and therefore contribute to vitamin K production.

Some people are of the opinion that it also promotes longevity.

Vitamin P—bioflavonoids

Bioflavonoids, also called vitamin P, are not strictly speaking a vitamin, but for easy classification, we are listing it as a vitamin. The term bioflavonoids refers to many different ingredients and include hesperin, hesperidin, eriodictyol, quercetin, quercertrin, rutin, etc. This nutrient can not be manufactured by the body and must be supplied in the diet.

Bioflavonoids are vital in their ability to increase the strength of the capillaries (blood vessels) and to regulate their permeability. They assist vitamin C in keeping collagen, the intercellular “cement” in healthy condition; are essential for the proper absorption and use of vitamin C; prevents vitamin C from being destroyed in the body by oxidation; beneficial in hypertension; help hemorrhages and ruptures in the capillaries and connective tissues and build a protective barrier against infections. Quercetin is a very highly concentrated form of bioflavonoids derived from citrus fruits.

Bioflavonoids enhance the action of vitamin C and for this reason they should be taken together. Bioflavonoids are effectively used in the treatment of sport injuries as they are pain relieving. They may also be used in relieving pain in the legs and across the back, and can lessen the symptoms of prolonged bleeding, a low serum calcium, as well as oral herpes.

Bioflavonoids may also be active in preserving the structures of capillaries, have an antibacterial effect and promote circulation. They may be indicated in the production of bile, lowering blood cholesterol levels and in the prevention and treatment of cataracts.

Bioflavonoids are thought to enhance the absorption of vitamin C, and possibly to prolong the effectiveness of it as well. These are super active substances, and can add a great deal to your nutritional needs in health and disease.

This nutrient acts together with vitamin C to help maintain the thin walls of the capillaries, therefore preventing bleeding or bruising. Bioflavonoids have been linked to having an antibacterial effect, stimulating bile production, promoting circulation and even assisting with fighting allergies, asthma etc.

If a diet contains enough fruits and vegetables, bioflavonoids should not be deficient, but deficiency would show up as bruising. Bioflavonoids could be of help in iron deficiency, as well as where antioxidants are indicated and none present. Since it helps with the absorption of iron.

Bioflavonoids are found in the white material just beneath citrus peel, as well as in peppers, grapes, pine bark, onions, garlic, blue and red berries, green tea, as well as buckwheat.

Absorption of the bioflavonoids can be a bit slow, but small amounts can be stored in the body. If you are suffering from cold sores, consider taking a supplement of 1,000 mg vitamin C and 1,000 mg bioflavonoids, and then 500 mg of each, three times a day. A daily intake of vitamin C and bioflavonoids may make you less susceptible to cold sores.

Choline

Choline’s metabolism is closely interrelated to that of methionine, and methyl-folate, yet choline is at times treated by some nutritional specialists as a stepchild in nutrition.

Choline is one of the “lipotropic” B vitamins—that is, it helps the utilization of fats in the body and thereby supports weight loss. This vitamin is widely available in food but is sensitive to water and may be destroyed by cooking, food processing, improper food storage, and the intake of various drugs, including alcohol, estrogen, and sulfa antibiotics.

Choline is easily absorbed from the intestines and is one of the only vitamins that crosses the blood-brain barrier into the spinal fluid to be involved directly in brain chemical metabolism. Choline is referred to as the “memory” vitamin, as it is an important part of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Choline assists in controlling your weight as well as cholesterol levels, keeping cell membranes healthy and in preventing gallstones. It is also most useful in the maintenance of the nervous system, assisting memory and learning, and may help to fight infections, including hepatitis and AIDS. Choline is critical for normal membrane structure and function.

Choline is the major precursor of betaine, and it is used by the kidneys to maintain water balance and by the liver as a source of methyl-groups for methionine formation. It is also used to produce the important neurotransmitter acetylcholine. It assists in nerve impulse transmission, gallbladder regulation, liver functions and lecithin production.

A deficiency of choline does not happen easily but if it is deficient it may lead to liver disease, hardening of the arteries, heart problems, raised cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, as well as hemorrhaging kidneys. Choline deficiency may also manifest itself in the inability to digest fats, stunted growth and fatty buildup in the liver. Memory and brain function could also be impaired.

The maximum level of choline has been set for safety at 3.5 g/day. Taking too much choline could result in your body smelling fishy, may cause nausea, depression, and could trigger existing epilepsy. Hypotension, sweating, salivation and diarrhea have also been reported.

Choline is found in egg yolks, beef, wheat germ, oats, nuts.

Choline, together with fat, inositol and essential unsaturated fatty acids makes up lecithin. It needs a co-enzyme containing vitamin B6, and magnesium to be produced. If lecithin is in short supply it may allow your blood cholesterol levels to become elevated.

Inositol

Inositol, one of the B-complex vitamins, is closely associated with vitamin B6, choline, biotin, pantothenic acid, PABA, and folic acid. Inositol is a component of phospholipids in animal tissue and phytic acid in plant cells. Inositol, like choline, helps move fats out of the liver. Inositol is needed for health at cellular level and a fair concentration is found in the lens of the human eye as well as the heart.

Inositol is converted to glucose by the intestinal flora in the large intestine. Inositol is essential in promoting the production of lecithin. Inositol is stored in the liver, spinal cord nerves, and in the brain and cerebral spinal fluid. Lipotropic effect helps in the metabolism of fats. Inositol and choline have an anti-arteriosclerotic, anti-atherogenic effect.

Inositol plays an important part in the health of cell membranes especially the specialized cells in the brain, bone marrow, eyes and intestines. The function of the cell membranes is to regulate the contents of the cells, which makes effective functioning possible. Inositol is said to promote healthy hair, hair growth, and helps in controlling estrogen levels and may assist in preventing breast lumps. It may also be of benefit in reducing blood cholesterol levels.

Risks for low inositol are diabetics, heavy stress, high protein or low calorie diet, antibiotics, eczema, constipation, abnormalities of the eyes, hair loss, and high blood cholesterol.

Taking of long term antibiotics may increase your need for inositol, as well as if you consume a lot of coffee. Coffee kills this nutrient.

Inositol is available from both plant and animal sources. The plant form in which inositol is available is phytic acid, which can bind with minerals and so affect their absorption negatively. The body is also able to manufacture this factor. Inositol is available from wheat germ, brewer’s yeast. bananas, liver, brown rice, oat flakes, nuts, unrefined molasses, raisins and vegetables.

Beta-carotene

Beta-carotene is the pigment that gives carrots, sweet potatoes, and other yellow vegetables their characteristic coloring. This conjugated polyene also serves as a precursor that can be enzymatically converted into vitamin A in most animals and man. Although vitamin A is not present in any plants, the carotene precursor can be found in carrots, pumpkins, spinach, squash, watermelon, asparagus, broccoli, and cantaloupe. Liver is also a very good source for beta-carotene. Vitamin A (retinol) is an essential component for vision and it promotes bone growth, tooth development, and helps maintain healthy skin, hair, and mucous membranes. Deficiencies of vitamin A result in a number of maladies, including night blindness, dry skin, poor bone growth, weak tooth enamel, and weight loss.

Beta-carotene (provitamin A) is essential for vision, adequate growth, and tissue differentiation. Beta-carotene has excellent antioxidant properties that help neutralize free-radicals. Beta-carotene can quench singlet oxygen, a reactive molecule that is generated in the skin by exposure to ultraviolet light and which can induce pre-cancerous changes in the cells. Provitamin A is essential in the conversion of cholesterol into female estrogens and male androgens. Thyroxine, a thyroid hormone, stimulates the conversion of carotene into a usable nutrient and fat-splitting enzymes. Bile salts convert carotene. Individuals taking beta-carotene for extended periods of time should also supplement with vitamin E, as beta-carotene may reduce vitamin E levels. Factors that interfere with the absorption of provitamin A are strenuous physical activity performed within 4 hours of consumption, consumption of mineral oil, excessive consumption of alcohol, excessive consumption of iron, and use of cortisone and other drugs. Intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids with carotene result in rapid destruction of carotene unless antioxidants are present. Diabetics may not be able to convert carotene into provitamin A. An adequate supply of zinc is needed so that the liver can mobilize provitamin A out of its storage depots. Gastrointestinal and liver disorders, infections and any condition in which the bile duct is obstructed may limit the body’s capacity to retain and use vitamin A. A low fat diet, resulting in little bile reaching the intestine, can cause vitamin A and carotene to be lost in the feces.

A deficiency of beta-carotene may result in night blindness; increased susceptibility to infections; loss of smell & appetite; frequent fatigue; lack of tearing; defective teeth & gums, retarded growth,brittle fingernails, cirrhosis of the liver, corneal ulcers, diarrhea, obstruction of the bile ducts, rough, dry, or prematurely aged skin, skin blemishes, softening of bones and teeth, sties in the eye, ulcerative colitis, xerosis.

50,000 IU’s (provitamin A) daily may be toxic, 18,500 IU’s (provitamin A) daily for 1-3 months are toxic for infants, 25,000 IU’s (provitamin A) can produce liver damage. Large doses may lead to anemia, blurred vision, bone pain, diarrhea, fatigue, gout, hair loss, headaches, irregular periods, liver enlargement, nausea, vomiting. Prolonged excessive intake results in abnormalities in skin, eyes, and mucous membranes, blurred vision, bone fragility, deep bone pain, enlargement of liver and spleen, reduced thyroid activity, skin rashes, thickening of long bones. If toxicity is detected, the symptoms will disappear in a few days after the vitamin is withdrawn. (An International Unit (IU) of vitamin A is equivalent to 0.6 mcg of beta-carotene)

PABA (Para-aminobenzoic acid)

PABA is the shortened name for para-aminobenzoic acid that is often thought of as only an ingredient used in sunscreens, while it is in actual fact a nutritional ingredient as well. Since it is a moiety of PGA, a form of folic acid, some health professionals do not consider it a vitamin, but only a B-complex factor.

Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a component of pteroylglutamate, was once considered a vitamin and named vitamin B-x because it serves as a provitamin for some bacteria. Later studies in humans demonstrated that it does not have vitamin activity because humans lack the ability to synthesize folate from PABA. This biochemical is very useful in other ways and has been extensively utilized as a sunscreen in topical lotions to protect the skin from harmful ultraviolet radiation upon exposure to the sun. It is also effective in the treatment of vitiligo, a condition that causes discoloration of the skin.

PABA is used to improve the protein used in the body. It relates to red blood cell formation, as well as assists in the manufacture of folic acid in the intestines. Para-aminobenzoic acid is used in sunscreen preparations since it can help protect the skin against ultra-violet radiation. It has been linked to hair growth as well as reversing the graying of hair, but these results are disappointing. People suffering from vitiligo, over-pigmentation of skin, or without pigment in some spots, have reported an improvement of the skin after more PABA was ingested. PABA also assists with breaking down of protein, the formation of red blood cells and maintaining intestinal flora.

When PABA is in short supply fatigue, irritability, nervousness and depression might manifest itself, as well as constipation. Weeping eczema has also been noted in people with PABA deficiency, as well as patchy areas on the skin.

When higher than factor (SPF) 8 sunscreens are used, the manufacture of vitamin D in the body may be reduced. Nausea, skin rashes and vomiting might be indicative of PABA taken in excess. Excessive levels of PABA are stored in the body and may cause liver damage.

Long term antibiotic use may require more PABA from the body, but take note of PABA affecting the ability of sulfa drugs. Although not documented in medical terms, some women having problems becoming pregnant claim conceiving after increasing PABA in their diet.

PABA is found in liver, kidney, brewer’s yeast, molasses, whole grains, mushrooms and spinach, and can be made by intestinal bacteria.

FATS and OILS

Fatty Acids

Alpha-linolenic Acid (ALA)

Alpha-linolenic acid, or ALA, is an essential fatty acid, which means that it is essential to human health but cannot be manufactured by the body. For this reason, ALA must be obtained from food. ALA, as well as the fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), belongs to a group of fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. EPA and DHA are found primarily in fish while ALA is highly concentrated in certain plant oils such as flaxseed oil and to a lesser extent, canola, soy, perilla, and walnut oils. ALA is also found in wild plants such as purslane. Once ingested, the body converts ALA to EPA and DHA, the two types of omega-3 fatty acids more readily used by the body.

It is important to maintain an appropriate balance of omega-3 and omega-6 (another essential fatty acid) in the diet as these two substances work together to promote health. These essential fats are both examples of polyunsaturated fatty acids, or PUFAs. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation and most omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. An inappropriate balance of these essential fatty acids contributes to the development of disease while a proper balance helps maintain and even improve health. A healthy diet should consist of roughly two to four times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to contain 11 to 30 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids and many researchers believe this imbalance is a significant factor in the rising rate of inflammatory disorders in the United States.

Some signs of alpha-linolenic acid deficiency include loss of motor coordination, tingling in the extremities, vision impairment, and behavioral changes.

Studies suggest that ALA and other omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful in treating a variety of conditions. The evidence is strongest for heart disease and problems that contribute to heart disease, but the range of possible uses for ALA include: heart disease, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, acne, arthritis, asthma, eating disorders, breast cancer, burns, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), depression, menstrual pain. Although further research is needed, preliminary evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids may also prove helpful in protecting against certain infections and in treating a variety of conditions including ulcers, migraine headaches, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, and panic attacks.

People with either diabetes or schizophrenia may lack the ability to convert ALA to EPA and DHA, the forms more readily used in the body. Therefore, people with these conditions should obtain their omega-3 fatty acids from dietary sources rich in EPA and DHA.

Although studies have found that regular consumption of fish (which includes the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA) may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, a recent study including two large groups of men and women found that diets rich in ALA may substantially increase the risk of this disease. More research is needed in this area. Until this information becomes available, it is best for people with macular degeneration to obtain omega-3 fatty acids from sources of EPA and DHA, rather than ALA.

Similar to macular degeneration, fish and fish oil may protect against prostate cancer, but ALA may be associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in men. More research in this area is needed.

Caprylic Acid

Caprylic acid is a fatty acid that has antifungal properties. It is produced by the body in small quantities and can be extracted from plant fats, such as coconut oil and palm oil. Nutritionally oriented doctors commonly recommend taking caprylic acid in supplement form for Candida overgrowth syndrome.

Candida is a yeast that naturally resides in relatively small numbers within the gastrointestinal tract, along with various bacteria. Problems can arise, however, when the balance between this yeast and the bacteria gets upset by the use of antibiotics, a condition that nutritionally oriented doctors call Candida overgrowth syndrome. Bloating, gas, diarrhea, fatigue, headache, depression, and repeated vaginal yeast infections are some of the symptoms of Candida overgrowth.

Restoring a normal balance of microorganisms in the body involves eliminating excess Candida and making dietary changes that encourage healthy microflora within the digestive tract. Somewhat dated but intriguing research studies have found that caprylic acid interferes with Candida’s growth and replication. However, there are no recent data or clinical trials to support this finding.

Since caprylic acid is so quickly absorbed through the intestines and delivered into the bloodstream, it’s best to take a timed-release or enteric-coated form of the supplement. Doing this enables the active ingredient to be released gradually, so it can do its work throughout the entire length of the intestinal tract.

A three-to-four month course of caprylic acid is typical. The usual recommended dosage is 1,000 to 2,000 mg three times a day with meals. However, most nutritionally oriented physicians suggest that you start with a smaller dose (500 mg once or twice a day) and then slowly increase your dose by adding one capsule every two to three days until you reach the full recommended dose. This is to prevent symptoms of “yeast die-off,” a harmless but uncomfortable flulike sensation that can occur when large amounts of Candida are eliminated at one time.

Caprylic acid supplements can be used with other natural or prescription antifungal medicines.

Avoid caprylic acid if you have an inflammatory bowel condition such as ulcerative colitis.

Side effects are rare, but reports of mild stomach upset and headaches have been associated with caprylic acid. To avoid these reactions, take caprylic acid with meals.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid that is essential for the proper functioning of our brains as adults, and for the development of our nervous system and visual abilities during the first six months of life. Lack of sufficient DHA may be associated with impaired mental and visual functioning as well as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. Low levels have also been associated with depression and Alzheimer’s disease in adults. Our bodies naturally produce some DHA, but in amounts too small and irregular to ensure proper biochemical functioning. Therefore, preformed DHA must be consumed in the diet through foods such as cold water fatty fish or in supplement form in order to assure an adequate supply.

Insufficient DHA may be related to increasing rates of depression in adults. More research is warranted to confirm the possible association between DHA and depression and to investigate whether DHA supplements may be of benefit in depressed patients.

DHA supplementation enhanced the DHA status of vegetarians and favorably influenced cholesterol levels. Because people with diabetes often develop heart disease, some diabetics may benefit from omega-3 fatty acid supplementation (including DHA).

DHA plays a crucial role in the growth and development of the central nervous system as well as visual functioning in infants. Nutrition experts have issued recommendations that pregnant and lactating women should consume 300 mg per day of DHA. Adequate intakes for infants on formula diets should be 0.35% DHA.

Some experts believe that omega-3 fatty acids (in the form of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA) may reduce inflammation and promote wound healing in burn victims and may also prove to be valuable in preventing colon cancer or treating it in its early stages. In addition, obese people who follow a weight loss program achieve better control over their blood sugar and cholesterol levels when fatty fish containing EPA and DHA is a staple in the diet.

DHA is found in cold water fatty fish, including wild salmon (not farm raised), tuna (bluefin tuna have up to five times more DHA than other types of tuna), mackerel, sardines, shellfish, and herring. Some organ meats such as liver and brain are also a good source of this essential fatty acid, and eggs provide some DHA, but in lower amounts. For infants, breast milk contains significant amounts of DHA, while infant formula often has none.

Fish oil capsules contain both DHA and EPA. Supplements containing EPA may not be recommended for infants or small children because they upset the balance between DHA and EPA during early development. This suggests that pregnant women should also be cautious about taking fish oil supplements. These effects may be avoided by using DHA supplements derived from algae sources, which do not contain EPA.

Fish oil capsules may be associated with side effects such as loose stools, abdominal discomfort, and unpleasant belching. In addition, they may prolong bleeding time slightly; therefore, people with bleeding disorders or those taking blood-thinning medications should discuss the use of fish oil capsules with their healthcare providers before taking them. Consumption of fish oil supplements may also increase antioxidant requirements in the body. Taking extra vitamin E along with these supplements may be warranted; again, please consult your healthcare provider.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is one of several omega-3 fatty acids used by the body. The typical Western diet is relatively deficient in omega-3 fatty acids compared to the diets of our ancestors. Our main dietary sources of EPA are cold water fish such as wild salmon. Fish oil supplements may also raise the concentrations of EPA in the body. Increased intake of EPA has been shown to be beneficial in coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, and inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.

The omega-3 fatty acids, including EPA, found in fish oils have been shown to modify the immune response and may be helpful in treating inflammatory autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Omega-3 fatty acids have also been shown to improve cardiovascular health and may prevent the accumulation of plaque (cholesterol and fat) on the walls of the arteries. Fish oil supplementation may also reduce high blood pressure in people with diabetes.

The omega-3 fatty acids in proper balance are essential for normal growth and development. Nutrition experts have issued recommendations for appropriate intake of each type of omega-3 fatty acid in infant formulas and diets. According to these recommendations, intake of EPA for infants on formula diets should be less than 0.1%.

Omega-3 fatty acids, including EPA, may also have positive effects on lung and kidney diseases, Type II diabetes, obesity, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, anorexia nervosa, burns, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and early stages of colorectal cancer.

EPA can be obtained by eating cold water fish such as wild salmon (not farm raised), mackerel, sardines, and herring.

Supplements containing EPA may not be recommended for infants or small children because they upset the proper balance with DHA, another omega-3 fatty acid needed during early development. This suggests that pregnant women should also be cautious about taking fish oil supplements.

In combination with aspirin, omega-3 fatty acids could be helpful in the treatment of some forms of coronary artery disease. Consult your healthcare provider about whether this combination would be appropriate for you if you have coronary artery disease.

Omega-3 fatty acids may reduce some of the side effects associated with cyclosporine therapy, which is often used to reduce the chances of rejection in transplant recipients. Consult your healthcare provider before adding any new herbs or supplements to your existing medication regimen.

In an animal study, omega-3 fatty acids protected the stomach against ulcers induced by reserpine and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as indomethacin. Consult your healthcare provider before using omega-3 fatty acids if you are currently taking these medications.

EPA has also been shown to boost the effects of a combination of low-dose etretinate and a topical corticosteroid medication used to treat severe, chronic psoriasis. Consult your doctor to determine if this combination therapy may be of benefit for you if you suffer from chronic psoriasis.

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) is an essential fatty acid (EFA) in the omega-6 family that is found primarily in plant-based oils. EFAs are essential to human health but cannot be made in the body. For this reason, they must be obtained from food. EFAs are needed for normal brain function, growth and development, bone health, stimulation of skin and hair growth, regulation of metabolism, and maintenance of reproductive processes.

Linoleic acid (LA), another omega-6 fatty acid, is found in cooking oils and processed foods and converted to GLA in the body. GLA is then broken down to arachidonic acid (AA) and/or another substance called dihomogamma-liolenic acid (DGLA). AA can also be consumed directly from meat, and GLA is available directly from evening primrose oil (EPO), black currant seed oil, and borage oil. Most of these oils also contain some linoleic acid.

The average North American diet provides more than 10 times the necessary amount of linoleic acid and tends to have too much omega-6 fatty acids compared to omega-3 fatty acids, another important class of EFAs. In fact, for optimum health, the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids should be between 1:1 and 4:1. The typical North American and Israeli diets are usually in the range of 11:1 to 30:1. This imbalance contributes to the development of long-term diseases such as heart disease, cancer, asthma, arthritis, and depression as well as, possibly, increased risk of infection.

Interestingly, not all omega-6 fatty acids behave the same. Linoleic acid (not to be confused with alpha-linolenic acid, which is in the omega-3 family) and arachidonic acid (AA) tend to be unhealthy because they promote inflammation, thereby increasing the risk of the diseases mentioned when consumed in excess. In contrast, GLA may actually reduce inflammation.

Much of the GLA taken from the oils mentioned or as a supplement is not converted to AA, but rather to DGLA. DGLA competes with AA and prevents the negative inflammatory effects that AA would otherwise cause in the body. Having adequate amounts of certain nutrients in the body (including magnesium, zinc, and vitamins C, B3, and B6) helps to promote the conversion of GLA to DGLA rather than AA.

It is important to know that many experts feel that the science supporting the use of omega-3 fatty acids to reduce inflammation and prevent diseases is much stronger than the information regarding use of GLA for these purposes.

GLA is the result of the body’s first biochemical step in the transformation of the main essential fatty acid LA into important prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are essential to the proper functioning of each cell, while essential fatty acids formed from GLA are required for each cell’s structure. Nature’s most potent concentration of GLA comes in the form of borage seed oil (24%). A great deal of scientific research has been conducted with supplements rich in GLA, resulting in significant interest regarding the aforementioned health ailments, as well as those affected by pre-menstrual syndrome, benign breast disease, eczema, psoriasis, obesity, and vascular disorders.

GLA is found in the plant seed oils of evening primrose, black currant, borage, and fungal oils. Spirulina (often called blue-green algae) also contains GLA.

Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, dietary supplements should be taken only under the supervision of a knowledgeable healthcare provider. Omega-6 supplements, including GLA and EPO, should not be used if you have a seizure disorder because there have been reports of these supplements inducing seizures. Borage seed oil, and possibly other sources of GLA, should not be used during pregnancy because they may be harmful to the fetus and induce early labor.Doses of GLA greater than 3,000 mg per day should be avoided because, at that point, production of AA (rather than DGLA) may increase.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 (you may sometimes see it written as n-3 or w-3) is the name given to a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The parent omega-3 — alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) — is described as ‘essential’ as, like vitamins, it must be obtained from diet. It is polyunsaturated and has 18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds (18:3). However, from the point of view of human nutrition, the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6) — EPA and DHA — are considered much more valuable as these are the forms the body requires. In theory, humans are able to synthesize EPA and DHA from dietary ALA, but in practice this process is inefficient. Scientists have, therefore, concluded that EPA and DHA should be obtained from diet.

Omega-3 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids, which means that they are essential to human health but cannot be manufactured by the body. For this reason, omega-3 fatty acids must be obtained from food. Omega-3 fatty acids can be found in fish and certain plant oils. It is important to maintain an appropriate balance of omega-3 and omega-6 (another essential fatty acid) in the diet as these two substances work together to promote health. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function as well as normal growth and development. There are three major types of omega 3 fatty acids that are ingested in foods and used by the body: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Once eaten, the body converts ALA to EPA and DHA, the two types of omega-3 fatty acids more readily used by the body. Extensive research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce inflammation and help prevent certain chronic diseases such as heart disease and arthritis. These essential fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain and appear to be particularly important for cognitive and behavioral function. In fact, infants who do not get enough omega-3 fatty acids from their mothers during pregnancy are at risk for developing vision and nerve problems.

As mentioned previously, it is very important to maintain a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation and most omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. An inappropriate balance of these essential fatty acids contributes to the development of disease while a proper balance helps maintain and even improve health. A healthy diet should consist of roughly one to four times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to contain 11 to 30 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids and many researchers believe this imbalance is a significant factor in the rising rate of inflammatory disorders in the United States.

In contrast, however, the Mediterranean diet consists of a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop heart disease. The Mediterranean diet does not include much meat (which is high in omega-6 fatty acids) and emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids including whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine consumption.

Studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful in treating a variety of conditions. The evidence is strongest for heart disease and problems that contribute to heart disease, but the range of possible uses for omega-3 fatty acids include: high cholesterol, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, weight loss, arthritis, osteoporosis, depression, manic/depression (bipolar disorder), schizophrenia, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), eating disorders, burns, skin disorders, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), asthma, macular degeneration, menstrual pain, colon cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer.

Although further research is needed, preliminary evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids may also prove helpful in protecting against certain infections and treating a variety of conditions including ulcers, migraine headaches, preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, lupus, and panic attacks.

Fish oils and plant oils are the primary dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids. Another potential source of omega-3 fatty acids is New Zealand green lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus), used for centuries by the Maoris to promote good health. EPA and DHA are found in cold-water fish such as salmon, mackerel, halibut, sardines, and herring. ALA is found in flaxseeds, flaxseed oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, soybeans, soybean oil, pumpkin seeds, pumpkin seed oil, purslane, perilla seed oil, walnuts, and walnut oil.

Omega-3 fatty acids should be used cautiously by people who bruise easily, have a bleeding disorder, or take blood-thinning medications because excessive amounts of omega-3 fatty acids may lead to bleeding. In fact, people who eat more than three grams of omega-3 fatty acids per day (equivalent to 3 servings of fish per day) may be at an increased risk for hemorrhagic stroke, a potentially fatal condition in which an artery in the brain leaks or ruptures.

Fish oil can cause flatulence and diarrhea. Time-release preparations may reduce these side effects, however.

Similar to macular degeneration, fish and fish oil may protect against prostate cancer, but ALA may be associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in men. More research in this area is needed.

It is best to use lipid extracts rather than the powder form of New Zealand green lipped mussels because there is less chance of an allergic reaction. People who are allergic to seafood should avoid New Zealand green lipped mussels. In some individuals who take New Zealand green lipped mussels, arthritis symptoms may worsen before they improve.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

Omega-6 fatty acids belong to a group of “good” fats called polyunsaturated fatty acids. Unlike such “bad” fats as cholesterol and saturated fatty acids (which contribute to the worsening of a host of ailments including heart disease and other degenerative conditions), omega-6s can actually be beneficial to your health.

Omega-6 fatty acids are one of two types of essential fatty acids (EFAs) that people need to consume to stay healthy. Omega-3s are the other. Both are considered “essential” because the body can’t produce them on its own; it can only get them through foods.

There are several different types of omega-6 fatty acids. Most omega-6 fatty acids are consumed in the diet from vegetable oils as linoleic acid (LA; be careful not to confuse this with alpha-linolenic acid [ALA] which is an omega-3 fatty acid). Linoleic acid is converted to gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in the body and then further broken down to arachidonic acid (AA). AA can also be consumed directly from meat, and GLA can be ingested from several plant-based oils including evening primrose oil (EPO), borage oil, and black currant seed oil.

Excess amounts of LA and AA are unhealthy because they promote inflammation, thereby leading to several of the diseases described above. In contrast, GLA may actually reduce inflammation. Much of the GLA taken as a supplement is not converted to AA, but rather to a substance called dihomogamma-linolenic acid (DGLA). DGLA competes with AA and prevents the negative inflammatory effects that AA would otherwise cause in the body. In addition, DGLA becomes part of a particular series of substances, called prostaglandins, that can reduce inflammation. Having adequate amounts of certain nutrients in the body (including magnesium, zinc, and vitamins C, B3, and B6) helps promote the conversion of GLA to DGLA rather than AA.

If you take omega-6s in borage oil supplements over several months, you need to be under a doctor’s supervision. In some cases, periodic liver function tests may be necessary. Although borage oil is a possible alternative to evening primrose oil for omega-6s, far less information is available on its safety and effectiveness.

The American diet provides more than 10 times the needed amount of omega-6 oils in the form of linoleic acid (LA). This is because it comprises the primary oil ingredient added to most processed foods and is found in commonly used cooking oils, including sunflower, safflower, corn, cottonseed, and soybean oils. Omega-6 fatty acids in the form of gamma linolenic acid (GLA) and LA are found in the plant seed oils of evening primrose, black currant, borage, and fungal oils. Arachidonic acid (AA) of the omega-6 series is found in egg yolk, meats in general, particularly organ meats, and other animal-based foods.

Omega-9 Fatty Acids (Oleic Acid)

Oleic acid is a fatty acid found in animal and vegetable oils. It is called a mono-unsaturated fatty acid because of the single double bond between the carbons. It’s physical properties are determined by the number, geometry, and position of this double bond and the degree of unsaturation.

Oleic acid is a mono-saturated fat generally believed to be good for one’s health. Indeed, it is the chief fatty acid found in olive oil, comprising 55 to 85 percent of the important substance, which is commonly used in Mediterranean cuisine and has been hailed for its therapeutic characteristics since antiquity. Modern studies support the notion of the benefits of consuming olive oil, since evidence suggests that oleic acid helps lower levels of harmful low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in the bloodstream, while leaving levels of beneficial high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) unchanged. Found also in significant quantities in canola, cod liver, coconut, soybean, and almond oils, oleic acid can be consumed from a variety of sources, some of which may soon contain even higher levels of the valuable fatty acid due to the efforts of genetic engineers.

OLEIC ACID, QsHaA, an organic acid occurring as a glyceride, triolein, in nearly all fats, and in many oils—olive, almond, cod liver. It appears as a by-product in the manufacture of candles. To prepare it, olive oil is saponified with potash, and lead acetate added; the lead salts are separated, dried, and extracted with ether, which dissolves the lead oleate; the solution is then treated with hydrochloric acid, the lead chloride filtered off, the liquid concentrated, and finally distilled under diminished pressure. Oleic acid is a colorless, odorless solid, melting at 14 and boiling at 223 (10 mm.). On exposure it turns yellow, becoming rancid. Nitric acid oxidizes it to all the fatty acids from acetic to capric. Nitrous acid gives the isomeric elaidic acid, which is crystalline and melts at 51. Hydriodic acid reduces both oleic and elaidic acids to stearic acid. Erucic acid, and the isomeric brassidic acid, belong to the oleic acid series. They occur as glycerides in rapeseed oil, in the fatty oil of mustard, and in the oil of grape seeds. Linoleic acid, found as glyceride in drying oils, and ricinoleic acid, found as glyceride in castor oil, closely resemble oleic acid.

Oleic acid occurs naturally in greater quantities than any other fatty acid. It is present as glycerides in most fats and oils. High concentrations of oleic acid can lower blood levels of cholesterol. It is used in the food industry to make synthetic butters and cheeses. It is also used to flavor baked goods, candy, ice cream, and sodas.

Vitamin F – Fatty Acids

Vitamins F, an essential fatty acid, is composed of two fatty acids—linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linoleic acid (LNA)—with linoleic acid being the most complete fatty acid. There are two basic categories of EFA’s (essential fatty acids)—omega-3 and omega-6—which include linoleic acid and gamma-linoleic acid. The body is not capable of manufacturing essential fatty acids, while the fatty acid arachidonic acid can be synthesized in the body from linoleic acid.

Fatty acids are needed for normal growth and behavior and help with healthy cell membranes, a well balanced hormone level and properly working immune system.

They are essential for the synthesis of tissue lipids, play an important role in the regulation of cholesterol levels, and are precursors of prostaglandins, hormone like compounds producing various metabolic effects in tissues.

To the skin, it brings suppleness and a youthful appearance and hair becomes more shiny and healthy when in good supply. It also seems important in the manufacture of sex and adrenal hormones. Fatty acids also stimulate the growth of the beneficial intestinal bacteria. Edema has also been reported with fatty acids in short supply.

Arthritis is said to benefit from these fatty acids and they also aid in the transmission of nerve impulses and a shortage may lead to learning disabilities and a problem with recalling information.

Hair loss and eczema may be indicated when deficient in Vitamin F and may cause damage to the kidneys, heart and liver. Behavioral disturbances are also noted when deficient. The immune system can become less efficient with resultant slow healing and susceptibility to infections. Tear glands can also not work effectively and may dry up. Blood pressure and cholesterol levels may be higher when deficient and blood more likely to form clots.

People who are overweight, have dry eyes, bruise easily and have frequent infections may consider increasing their intake as well as those on a low fat diet or with a dry skin, dandruff or brittle nails.

Fatty acids are available in evening primrose oil, grape seed oil, flaxseed oil, and oils of grains, nuts and seeds, such as soybean, walnuts, sesame, and sunflower. Also present in avocados, as well as meat and fish like salmon, trout, mackerel and tuna. Omega-6 EFA is found in raw nuts, seeds, legumes, grape seed oil and flaxseed oil. Omega-3 EFA is found in fish, canola oil, and walnut oil.

When buying a supplement of fatty acids, make sure they are in balanced quantities. But please remember that these oils are unstable. Heat and light must be excluded when extracting these oils and must be stored away from light. If fatty acid oils are hydrogenated, as in the manufacture of margarine, the linoleic acid is converted into trans-fatty acids which are not beneficial to the body.

OILS

Borage Oil

Borage oil is derived from the seeds of the borage (Borago officinalis) plant. This large plant with blue, star-shaped flowers is found throughout Europe and North Africa. It is naturalized to North America.

Borage oil, evening primrose oil, and black currant seed oil contain gamma linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid that the body converts to a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). PGE1 has anti-inflammatory properties and may also act as a blood thinner and blood vessel dilator. Linoleic acid, a common fatty acid found in nuts and seeds and most vegetable oils (including borage oil), should theoretically convert to PGE1. Many things can interfere with this conversion, however, including disease; the aging process; saturated fat; hydrogenated oils; blood sugar problems; and inadequate vitamin C, magnesium, zinc, and B vitamins. Supplements that provide GLA circumvent these conversion problems, leading to more predictable formation of PGE1.

Borage seed oil is the richest source of GLA, containing 20 to 26%. While GLA from evening primrose oil has been widely researched, scientific evidence supporting the use of borage oil has been limited. Nonetheless, one preliminary trial and two double-blind trials have shown that borage oil, 1.1-2.8 grams per day for at least three months, reduces symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis.

Borage oil has also been used to treat people with atopic dermatitis (eczema) in preliminary trials, with reductions in skin inflammation, dryness, scaliness, and itch, without side effects being reported. However, a controlled study using 360 mg daily of GLA from borage oil in patients with atopic dermatitis (3 to 17 years of age) was unable to reproduce these results. In another preliminary study, a group of children with infantile seborrheic dermatitis were treated with borage oil (0.5 ml) applied to the diaper region twice daily. Within 10 to 12 days, all of the children were free from skin lesions, even in the areas not treated with borage. Moreover, using the oil topically two to three times a week kept the seborrhea in remission until the patients were six to seven months old. There were no relapses after the oil was discontinued.

Borage oil is found primarily in supplements. Its presumed active ingredient, GLA, can also be found in black currant seed oil and evening primrose oil supplements. However, it is not known whether the effects of these three oils in the body, are the same.

Many people in Western societies may be at least partially GLA-deficient as a result of aging, glucose intolerance, dietary fat intake, and other problems, though the exact incidence of deficiency remains unknown. People with deficiencies benefit from supplemental GLA intake from borage oil, black currant seed oil, or evening primrose oil.

Those with premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, scleroderma, Sjogren’s syndrome, tardive dyskinesia, eczema, and other skin conditions may have a metabolic block that interferes with the body’s ability to make GLA. However, most clinical trials supplementing GLA for these conditions has used evening primrose oil, and not borage oil.

Borage seeds contain small amounts of liver toxins called pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA). However, testing has not demonstrated the presence of the alkaloid in the seed oil. Most commercially available borage seed oil is, therefore, likely to be PA-free and presents no risk of PA toxicity. Minor side effects from borage oil use can include bloating, nausea, indigestion, and headache.

Cod Liver Oil

Cod liver oil is highly effective at slowing the destruction of joint cartilage in patients with osteoarthritis.

High in Omega-3 containing the essential fatty acids DHA and EPA.
Purified to the highest standards and routinely tested using AOAC international protocols in an independent, FDA registered laboratory to ensure freedom from detectable levels of mercury, cadmium, lead, PCBs and 28 other contaminants.
Free from chemical modification and processing.
Pleasant tasting, with natural lemon flavor.

The main difference between cod liver oil and fish oil is that cod liver oil is high in vitamin D. In warm weather, the sunshine produces high and usually sufficient levels of vitamin D without any supplementation necessary. It is not recommended consuming cod liver oil in the warm weather months or climates, as this can result in an excess of vitamin D in your system and consequential complications. Conversely, in cool weather, your body needs more vitamin D, and so cod liver oil versus fish oil is recommended in the cool weather months or climates. A general rule is, take cod liver oil from autumn to early spring, and fish oil from late spring through the end of summer. Adjust accordingly the closer or farther from the equator you live.

Cod liver oil contains in each gram, not less than 255 IU of vitamin A and not less than 2.125 IU of Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), EPA and DHA are omega-3-fatty acids, precursors to beneficial prostaglandin production. Contains up to 150 mcg of iodine per 100 g. Also contains sulfur, unsaturated fat (85%) — palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, gadoleic, clupanodonic, saturated fat (15%) — myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid. DHA is also found in mother’s milk and aids in eye and brain development.

Evening Primrose Oil

Evening primrose oil is extracted from the evening primrose plant (Oenothera biennis), a wildflower found in North America, Europe and parts of Asia. The plant’s pale yellow flowers open in the evening—hence its common name. Its seeds bear the special fatty oil that is used in healing today. Seeds contain about 14% fixed oil (evening primrose oil, EPO), with approx. 50-70% cis-linolenic acid, and 7-10% cis-gamma-linolenic acid (Gamma linolenic acid, GLA). Production of GLA from linoleic acid may be blocked or diminished as the result of: aging, diabetes mellitus, excessive carbohydrate intake or fasting. Contains the highest amount of GLA of any food.

In another era, Native Americans and the early settlers gathered the plant and its root to treat such ailments as hemorrhoids, stomachaches, sore throats, and bruises. It took modern research to unveil the therapeutic power contained within the seed oil: an essential fatty acid (EFA) called gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Once processed in the body, GLA, an omega-6 fatty acid, exerts anti-inflammatory and other healing actions.

Evening primrose oil is certainly not the only source of GLA. Various foods actually contain small amounts of it and the body produces GLA on its own from a number of dietary fats. But evening primrose oil offers an unusually concentrated source, with 7% to 10% of its fatty acids available in the form of GLA. Interestingly, borage oil features even more GLA (20% to 26%), and black currant oil offers rich stores as well (14% to 19%), but their effectiveness and safety for many ailments has not been as intensively examined as evening primrose oil. Nonetheless, some people prefer borage and black currant oils because they require a lower dose (at less total cost) for the same amount of GLA.

The remarkably rich stores of GLA in evening primrose oil are what make it so valuable in healing. Taken internally, the body converts GLA into prostaglandins. These hormonelike compounds help regulate various body functions, controlling inflammation in some cases and promoting it in others. The prostaglandins produced from GLA fall into the anti-inflammatory category. Cell membranes also rely on the presence of GLA.

Specifically, evening primrose oil may help to:

Relieve the discomforts of PMS (premenstrual syndrome), menstruation, endometriosis and fibrocystic breasts.
Ease the joint pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis.
Prevent diabetes-associated nerve damage.
Reduce the symptoms of eczema.
Treat acne and rosacea.
Alleviate inflammation associated with lupus.
Lessen numbness and tingling.
Combat damage from multiple sclerosis.
Treat Alzheimer’s-related memory deficiencies.
Protect against the effects of aging.
Counter impotence and female infertility.
Alleviate Raynaud’s disease symptoms.
Nourish nails, scalp, and hair.
Prevent alcohol withdrawal symptoms.

Evening primrose oil may increase the risk of temporal lobe epilepsy in schizophrenic patients taking phenothiazine epileptogenic drugs. When combined with antiepileptic drugs there may be an increased risk of seizure. Due to the antihypertensive (hypotensive) action of this herb the following interactions are possible: when taken with anesthetics an increased hypotensive effect; potentiation of antihypertensives; when taken with diuretics difficulty with diuresis and hypertension may result; antagonism of sympathomimetics. There are no other known drug or nutrient interactions associated with evening primrose oil or its contained essential fatty acids.

Evening primrose oil appears to be safe. Stomach upset, headaches, and rashes have been reported as side effects. None of these are fatal, of course. Bloating or abdominal upset develop in a small percentage (about 2%) of those participating in evening primrose oil studies.

Fish Oil

Fish oil contains heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids. Many studies find some beneficial effect, especially against heart attacks. But supplements can have adverse effects. A drying oil can be obtained from menhaden, pilchard, sardine and herring. Fish oil should not be confused with fish liver oil. It contains 20% polyunsaturated fatty acids, 30-35% saturated fatty acids, 40-55% monoenoic fatty acids, 7-15% dienoic fatty acids, 3-10% trienoic fatty acids, less than 2% tetraenoic or higher fatty acids.

There is considerable evidence that fish and fish oils are beneficial to heart health, reduce the risk of cancer, and benefit mental health. The “active” components of fish oils are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid with 20 carbon atoms in its backbone, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid with 22 carbon atoms. Both are members of the omega-3 group of essential fatty acids. EPA and DHA are found exclusively in marine animals; fatty fish such as herring, sardines, salmon and fresh tuna are the best sources.

Who should consider taking fish-oil supplements:

People who already have coronary artery disease, notably those who have had a heart attack. There is solid evidence that omega-3s can help protect them. Thus, the AHA (the American Heart Association) started recommending 1 gram a day of omega-3s, preferably from fish, for these people, with their doctors’ approval. That’s the amount in a serving of fatty fish, such as 3 ounces of salmon. But most people don’t eat fish every day, and many choose less-fatty fish (it takes 12 ounces of canned tuna or 7 ounces of flounder to supply 1 gram of omega-3s). Moreover, since fish may contain mercury, we advise limiting fish intake to 12 ounces a week, on average. So to get enough omega-3s without going overboard on fish, people with heart disease should consider taking fish-oil supplements on days when they don’t eat fish.
Those with high triglycerides. These fats in the blood increase the risk of heart disease. It’s well known that omega-3s help lower triglycerides. The AHA recommends 2 to 4 grams a day from supplements for people with high triglycerides, but only under the care of a physician.
Those with rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, or other auto-immune disorders. Omega-3s may help relieve the inflammatory symptoms of such auto-immune diseases by suppressing the immune response. Thus, they can help reduce the joint pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis. The Arthritis Foundation says the supplements are worth trying. Clinical studies suggest about 3 grams of omega-3s a day.

If fish oil is so great, why shouldn’t everyone take supplements?

The decreased ability of the blood to clot, which helps prevent heart attacks, has a negative side, notably an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke. People with bleeding disorders, those taking anticoagulants, and those with uncontrolled hypertension should not take fish oil supplements.
Large doses of fish oil may suppress the immune system. Thus, supplements may be risky for those with weakened immune systems. What’s a “large dose”? One definition is 3 grams or more a day, but no one really knows what the cutoff point is.
Large doses can increase glucose levels in people with diabetes.
Large doses can cause nausea, diarrhea, belching, and a bad taste in the mouth.
The supplements may contain contaminants and may not contain the labeled dose. A recent test by Consumer Reports of top-selling supplements was reassuring on both counts, even for the least expensive brands, but that doesn’t mean that the next batches will be okay, or that other brands on the market are. Last year a test by ConsumerLab.com found no detectable levels of mercury in 20 fish-oil supplements, but did find that some brands didn’t contain the labeled amounts of omega-3s.

It is rare for a major health group like the AHA to recommend any dietary supplement. But remember, its advice concerns the treatment of specific diseases. For everyone else, two or three small servings of fish a week is still the way to go. Fish may be more beneficial than the supplements because it contains other important nutrients, some potentially cardio-protective. And fish can take the place of meat, which is usually high in saturated fat and thus bad for the heart.

Fish Liver Oil

In addition to diet, increasing intake of water and fresh green vegetables, to fight and prevent disease and live longer is fish oil! More specifically, fish oil in warm weather, and cod liver oil in cool weather.

The main difference between cod liver oil and fish oil is that cod liver oil is high in vitamin D. In warm weather, the sunshine produces high and usually sufficient levels of vitamin D without any supplementation necessary; Consuming cod liver oil in the warm weather months or climates is not recommended, as this can result in an excess of vitamin D in your system and consequential complications. Conversely, in cool weather, your body needs more vitamin D, and so cod liver oil versus fish oil should be used in cool weather months or climates. A general rule is, take cod liver oil from autumn to early spring, and fish oil from late spring through the end of summer. Adjust accordingly the closer or farther from the equator you live.

Americans consume a dangerously insufficient amount of omega-3, a fat essential to good health but only found in fish oil and a few other foods. Meanwhile, our intake of Omega-6, another fat found in corn, soy, sunflower and other oils, is far too high. The ideal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 should be 1:1, but the typical American’s ratio ranges from 20:1 to 50:1!

Benefits of the omega-3 Found in cod liver oil

Helps fight and prevent heart disease, cancer, depression, Alzheimer’s, arthritis, diabetes, ulcers, hyperactivity and many other diseases.
Increases your energy level and ability to concentrate.
Provides greater resistance to common illnesses such as flu and cold.
Helps pregnant women avoid premature births, low birth weight and other complications.

Flaxseed Oil

A source of fiber for linen fabric since ancient times, the slender flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) also boasts a long history as a healing herb. First cultivated in Europe, the plant’s brown seeds were regularly used to prepare balms for inflamed skin and healing slurries for constipation. Today, flaxseeds—also called linseeds—are best known for the therapeutic oil that is derived by pressing them. Rich in essential fatty acids, or EFAs, flaxseed oil has earned a solid reputation for treating a range of ailments, from heart disease to lupus.

The essential fatty acids in flaxseed oil are its key healing components. EFAs are particularly valuable because the body needs them to function properly, but can’t manufacture them on its own. Essential fatty acids work throughout the body to protect cell membranes, keeping them efficient at admitting healthy substances while barring damaging ones.

One of the EFAs in flaxseed oil—alpha-linolenic acid—is known as an omega-3 fatty acid. Like the omega-3s found in fish, it appears to reduce the risk of heart disease and numerous other ailments. Flaxseed oil is an excellent source of omega-3s. Just 1 teaspoon contains about 2.5 grams, equivalent to more than twice the amount most Americans get through their diets. Flaxseeds also contain omega-6 fatty acids in the form of linoleic acid and are the same healthy fats found in vegetable oils.

In addition, flaxseeds are a rich source of lignans, substances that appear to positively affect hormone-related problems. Lignans may also be useful in preventing certain cancers and combating specific bacteria, fungi, and viruses, including those that cause cold sores and shingles. When taken in ground form, flaxseeds provide an extra fiber boost, easing the passage of stools and benefiting the digestive tract in multiple ways.

Flaxseed oil (and flaxseeds) may help to:

Lower cholesterol, protect against heart disease and control high blood pressure.
Counter inflammation associated with gout, lupus and fibrocystic breasts.
Control constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticular disorders and gallstones.
Treat acne, eczema, psoriasis, sunburn and rosacea.
Promote healthy hair and nails.
Minimize nerve damage that causes numbness and tingling, as well as other disorders.
Reduce cancer risk and guard against the effects of aging.
Treat menopausal symptoms, menstrual cramps, female infertility and endometriosis.
Fight prostate problems, male infertility and impotence.

For best absorption, take flaxseed oil with food. It is easily mixed into juices and other drinks, and its nutty, buttery flavor complements cottage cheese, yogurt and many other foods. You can also use it instead of olive oil in a salad dressing. Don’t cook with it, however, this will deplete the oil’s nutrient content.

There appear to be few if any drug or nutrient interactions with flaxseeds (or their oil). Because flaxseed may interfere with the absorption of certain medicines, however, it’s a good idea to consult your doctor if you are already on medication and want to take it in any form.

To prevent ground flaxseed from swelling up and obstructing your throat or digestive tract, drink plenty of water (one 8-ounce glass of water per tablespoon of ground flaxseed) along with it. Don’t take flaxseed oil or ground flaxseed if you have a bowel obstruction of any kind. Allergic reactions to flaxseed have occurred. If you suddenly have difficulty breathing after taking the supplement, it is imperative that you get medical attention promptly. Flaxseed oil is also called linseed oil. The industrial types of linseed oil found in hardware stores are not for internal consumption, however. They may have poisonous additives.

Linseed Oil

Linseed oil an is amber-colored, fatty oil extracted from the cotyledons and inner coats of the linseed. The raw oil extracted from the seeds by hydraulic pressure is pale in color and practically without taste or odor. When boiled or extracted by application of heat and pressure, it is darker and has a bitter taste and an unpleasant odor. Linseed oil has long been used as a drying oil in paints and varnish. It is also used in making linoleum, oilcloth, and certain inks.

Linseed oil, obtained from seed of the flax plant, is primarily used in industry; but some is used for edible purposes in eastern Europe. The flax plant is erect growing to 3 feet, with narrow, entire leaves. The fruit is a pod or capsule, which is indehiscent. Linseed oil, obtained from seed of the flax plant, is primarily used in industry; but some is used for edible purposes in eastern Europe.

Because of the mucilage content, it may adversely affect the absorption of drugs, iron and other minerals. When taken simultaneously, bulk-forming laxatives may inhibit the absorption of other drugs (e.g. aspirin, cardiac glycosides, antibiotics, anticoagulants, etc.) and dietary nutrients (e.g. calcium, iron, zinc, sodium, potassium, etc.). Due to the diuretic action of this herb, the following drug interactions are possible: increased risk of toxicity with anti-inflammatory analgesics; if hypokalemia occurs possible antagonism with antiarrhythmics and potentiation of muscle relaxants; antagonizes antidiabetic (hypoglycemic) drugs; may potentiate and/or interfere with antihypertensives; may potentiate lithium therapy; when taken with corticosteroids there is a risk for hypokalemia; may potentiate other diuretics and increase the risk of hypokalemia.

Do not exceed 60 g internally. Do not use immature seeds. In cases of inflammatory bowel conditions, linseed should only be used after being pre-swollen. When taken in too high doses, linseed may disturb the water and electrolyte balance, resulting in excessive loss of potassium. Linseed can accumulate cadmium. Drink plenty of fluids when using linseed. Due to the bulk-forming fibers and mucilage found in this material, ingesting it without adequate fluid may cause it to swell, blocking the esophagus, and cause choking. This material should be administered with at least 8 ounces of water or other fluid (taken without enough fluid may cause choking). Seeds contain prussic acid which is potentially toxic (cyanogenic) in large doses. Leaves and the seed chaff of Linum usitatissimum contain linamarin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that liberates cyanide upon hydrolysis with linamarase (enzyme also present). Linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside, yields hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) upon hydrolysis. In low doses, hydrocyanic acid (HCN) may cause dizziness, headache, nausea, and vomiting. If cyanides overwhelm the body’s natural detoxification mechanisms, they can stop cellular respiration by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase, carbonic anhydrase and other enzyme systems resulting in acute cyanide poisoning characterized by: hyperventilation, headache, nausea, vomiting, collapse, coma, convulsions, respiratory failure, and death. Subacute symptoms with nonlethal doses include: choking feeling, anxiety, dizziness, confusion, headache, incontinence, rapid, weak and irregular pulse.

Safflower Oil

Safflower is a family of the sunflower. It is believed to have originated in southern Asia and is known to have been cultivated in China, India, Persia and Egypt almost from prehistoric times. During Middle Ages it was cultivated in Italy, France, and Spain, and soon after discovery of America, the Spanish took it to Mexico and then to Venezuela and Colombia. It was introduced into the United States in 1925 from the Mediterranean region and is now grown in all parts west of the 100th meridian. Safflower is flavorless, colorless oil expressed from the seeds of the safflower, also called saffron thistle or bastard saffron. This oil contains more polyunsaturates than any other oil, has a high smoke point making it ideal for deep frying, and is favored for salad dressing because it does not solidify when chilled. However, safflower oil lacks vitamin E, making it less nutritional than other oils on the market. Since it is odorless, light, and quick to absorb, it is becoming more popular and favored in the skincare field. It has a high content of unsaturated fatty acids but should be mixed with another carrier oil with good antioxidant qualities to increase the shelf life of this oil, since it can go rancid quickly.

A recent study espousing the benefits of olive oil in preventing colon cancer showed interesting findings. Rats were randomly assigned to receive a diet rich in one of three types of fatty acids found in oil (safflower oil, olive oil, or fish oil). After one week receiving a 5% fat diet, each dietary group was re-divided. Half received a cancer-causing agent and the other half received a harmless saline. Rats fed a diet supplemented with olive oil had a lower risk of colon cancer than those fed diets supplemented with safflower oil, nearly as low as those supplemented with fish oil, an established colon cancer fighting agent.

These findings add to the considerable evidence linking good nutrition with health promotion and disease prevention. However, it cannot be stated that by simply adding safflower oil to one’s diet will cause them to lose weight, especially when a better substitution, such as olive oil, exists. It is considered to be a healthy oil, but remember that fats should still be used in moderation.

Safflower oil oxidizes very easily but can be used in massage blends. It may be beneficial for painfully inflamed joints, and applied to bruises, sprains, and painful arthritis. Safflower massage oil has great moisturizing qualities which makes it a good choice to include when mixing a massage oil or preparing a carrier oil blend.

Wheat Germ Oil

Wheat Germ oil is one of nature’s best sources of Vitamin E. The Vitamin E found in Wheat Germ oil is well known for its antioxidant properties. In addition, its emollient and conditioning properties make it ideal for healthy moisturized skin and hair.

Wheat germ oil is made from the germ of the wheat—the heart of it. The wheat grain consists of three parts—the husk, the germ and the endosperm—and it is the germ that is used in the manufacture of the oil. Although the germ only constitutes 3% of the weight of a wheat grain, it contains nearly 25% of the protein, vitamins and minerals. Wheat germ oil is very high in vitamin E and essential fatty acids. Because of its high vitamin E content, which is a natural antioxidant which helps to prevent rancidity, it is often added to other carriers to help lengthen their shelf life and to prevent them going off. When used in massage blends it may be too heavy on its own, but it has great nourishing qualities which makes it a good choice to include when mixing a massage blend or preparing a carrier blend. It has a slight nutty aroma and is extracted by cold pressing or solvent extraction from the “germ.”

With its high vitamin E content and essential fatty acids, it is used extensively in aromatherapy massage blends since it is said to promote a smoother, younger looking skin, assisting in healing scar tissue as well as stretch marks. It is too sticky to use on its own, but is wonderful when blended with a lighter carriers, such as sweet almond. When it is applied topically on to the skin it is said to help promote the formation of new cells, improve circulation, and is said to help repair sun damage to the skin. It is also used to help relieve the symptoms of dermatitis. This carrier is said to stimulate tissue regeneration and is often added to other blends because of its antioxidant properties.

Do not use full strength as it can be overpowering. Dilute 5-10% with other carriers.

MICRONUTRIENTS / MINERALS

Boron (B)

Boron compounds have been known for thousands of years, but the element was not discovered until 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. The element is not found free in nature, but occurs as orthoboric acid usually found in certain volcanic spring waters and as borates in boron and colemantie. Ulexite, another boron mineral, is interesting as it is nature’s own version of “fiber optics.”

Boron is one of the simplest of atoms. The only simpler ones are hydrogen, helium, lithium and beryllium. Boron has chemical symbol B, atomic number 5, and occurs naturally as 80% B¹¹ and 20% B¹⁰. The latter isotope has a high cross section for thermal neutron absorption, 3800 barns. Thermal neutron counters are often filled with BF₃ gas. The gamma ray from the neutron capture reaction B¹⁰(n,-)B¹¹* followed by decay of the B¹¹* to an α plus Li⁷ produces ionization which is then detected. Boron is also used in reactor control rods. This is a nuclear property of boron, and has nothing at all to do with its chemistry. The atomic weight of boron is 10.81.

Boron is found in a variety of similar minerals all related to borax, sodium tetraborate, Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O. The name comes from the Arabic buraq, “white.” Borax is the same in French and German as in English, but the element is bor. In Spanish, the words are bóraxo and boro. It is a relatively rare element in the earth’s crust, representing only 0.001%. In the United States, borax is found in large amounts in California, in Searles Lake brines and in the Mojave desert. It is also found in Turkey, South America and other places. The natural deposits are dried-up lake beds. Molten borax reacts with metal oxides to form borates that dissolve in the melt, so it is useful as a welding and soldering flux, and in colored enamels for iron. In fact, this was the earliest use of borax, as a pottery glaze. This same property is used for borax bead tests in chemistry, where the characteristic colors produced in a transparent borax drop melted on a loop of platinum wire in a bunsen burner flame are observed. Blue, for example, is the color of cobalt; green, of chromium. The color can differ in oxidizing (blue) and reducing (yellow) flames.

Boron enhances the body’s ability to use calcium, magnesium, as well as vitamin D. It also seems to assist in brain functioning and recognition. Boron seems to prevent calcium and magnesium from being lost in the urine and may help with decreasing menstrual pain by increasing the oestradiol level, which is a very active type of estrogen. People have also reported the reduction of arthritis symptoms with an intake of Boron.

A shortage of Boron might negatively influence the balance of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus resulting in bone loss, and increasing the risk of arthritis and elevated blood pressure.

Oral doses greater than 100 mg/day may cause: dermatitis, diarrhea, disturbances in digestion, lethargy, nausea, vomiting. Ingesting Boron-containing preparations have resulted in dryness of the skin and digestive upsets, but low dose supplements have shown no toxic effect yet. Best taken with manganese, calcium and Vitamin B2 (remember you need Vitamin B6 with Vitamin B2).

Prunes, dates, raisins and honey, nuts, fresh fruit such as grapes and pears, green leafy vegetables and beans are good sources or Boron.

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body and one of the most important. The calcium topic is huge and complex. This mineral constitutes about 1.5-2.0 percent of our body weight. Almost all (98 percent) of our approximately three pounds of calcium is contained in our bones, about 1 percent in our teeth, and the rest in the other tissues and the circulation.

It is mainly the calcium in your diet that spares, or protects, the calcium in your bones. In addition to their structural role, your bones are your emergency supply of calcium. Your body actually tears down and builds bone all of the time in order to make its calcium available for your body’s functions. If you don’t get enough calcium from the food you eat, your body automatically takes the calcium you need from your bones. If your body continues to tear down more bone than it replaces over a period of years to get calcium, your bones become weak and break easily. This leads to the crippling bone disease called “osteoporosis.” Approximately 25 million American women have some degree of osteoporosis; the disease will affect one-third to one-half of post-menopausal women, and 5 million American men suffer from osteoporosis.

The most available source of calcium in our food supply comes from milk and foods made with milk. Because these dairy products are one of the easiest ways to meet your calcium needs, the food pyramid recommends 2-3 servings from the Milk, Yogurt and Cheese Group every day.

The pyramid is an outline of what to eat each day to get the nutrients you need. Each food group provides a unique combination of nutrients. Foods in one group can’t replace those in another. For good health, you need them all. The Milk, Yogurt and Cheese Group is one piece of the pyramid that needs rebuilding. Most Americans do not eat the recommended number of servings to get the calcium they need. Calcium is also found in foods such as dark green vegetables, nuts, grains, beans, canned salmon and sardines (if you eat the bones). These foods can help contribute to your calcium quota. But without dairy in your diet, it may be difficult to meet your daily calcium requirements.

Calcium and magnesium are the “earth alkali” minerals found in the earth’s crust, usually as salts that are fairly insoluble. (The word calcium comes from the Latin calc, meaning “lime,” as in limestone, a calcium carbonate substance.) Dolomite, a calcium-magnesium earth mineral combination that is a little more soluble and usable by the body than some other forms, is a commonly used calcium supplement.

Many other nutrients, vitamin D, and certain hormones are important to calcium absorption, function, and metabolism. Phosphorus as well as calcium is needed for normal bones, as are magnesium, silicon, strontium, boron possibly, and the protein matrix-all part of our bone structure. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in our bones is about 2.5:1; the best proportions of these minerals in our diet for proper metabolism are currently under question.

Prolonged bone re-absorption from chronic dietary deficiency results in osteoporosis – from either too little bone mass accumulation during growth or higher rate of bone loss at menopause. Dietary calcium deficiency also has been associated with increased risk of hypertension, and colon cancer. When it is in short supply, a variety of symptoms from aching joints, eczema, elevated blood cholesterol, heart palpitations, brittle nails, hypertension (high blood pressure) and insomnia can become evident. Muscle cramps, nervousness, numbness in the arms and legs, rheumatoid arthritis, convulsions, depression and delusions have also been noted.

According to recent USDA surveys, average calcium intakes for women and younger men are below their RDA. The average calcium intake by women 20 to 29 years of age was about 778 milligrams per day, and the intake by women 30 to 50 years of age was about 719 milligrams. Average calcium intake by men 20 to 29 years of age was 1075 milligrams. Calcium absorption is dependent upon the calcium needs of the body, the foods eaten, and the amount of calcium in the foods eaten. Vitamin D, whether from diet or exposure to the ultraviolet light of the sun, increases calcium absorption. Calcium absorption tends to decrease with increased age for both men and women.

Excess calcium supplementation has been associated with some mineral imbalances such as zinc, but combined with a magnesium deficiency it may cause deposits to form in your kidneys, which could cause kidney stones. It is recommended to take one to two parts of calcium and phosphorus to one part of magnesium. Vitamin D and vitamin A are beneficial to have with this nutrient and it is great when taking a supplement that it is chelated with amino acids.

More calcium may be needed if you suffer from osteoporosis, are lacking in Vitamin D, if you have a gum disease or eat processed foods, ingest excess protein, fat, sugar or caffeine, salt or fizzy soda drinks. Drinking bottled water with a low mineral content could require more dietary calcium and so may the consumption of alcohol, taking a birth control pill, diuretic (water pill), antacids or if you are on hormone replacement therapy.

Phosphorus, sodium, alcohol, coffee and white flour aid the loss of calcium from the body, while too much protein, fat and sugars can have a negative effect with the absorption thereof. Tetracycline and calcium bond together which impairs the absorption of both.

Milk, milk products, beans, nuts, molasses and fruit contain good amounts of calcium. Fish and seafood, as well as green leafy vegetables, supply good amounts of calcium.

Chloride (Cl)

Chloride is formed when chlorine gas dissolves in water but is also a dietary mineral needed by the body for optimum health. Chloride makes up about 0.15 percent of our body weight. Chloride in the diet works with potassium and sodium, the two electrolytes, to control the flow of fluid in blood vessels and tissues, as well as regulating acidity in the body, and also forms part of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

Chloride is commonly used as sodium chloride, such as in salt tablets, to help replace the sodium and chloride lost in perspiration on hot days or with exercise. Chlorine is used in treating drinking water, swimming pools, hot tubs, and so on to kill bacteria and other microorganisms.

Chromium (Cr)

In the mid 18th century analysis of Siberian “red lead” (PbCrO₄, crocoite) from Siberia showed that it contained quite a lot of lead, but also a further material. This was eventually identified as chromium oxide. Chromium oxide was discovered in 1797 by Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin, who prepared the metal itself in the following year. Starting from crocoite the procedure was to powder the mineral and to precipitate the lead out through its reaction with hydrochloric acid (HCl in water). The residue was chromium oxide, CrO₃. Heating this oxide in an oven in the presence of charcoal as a reducing agent gave the metal itself.

Vauquelin also analyzed an emerald from Peru and discovered that its green colour is because of the presence of the new element, chromium. In fact, the name chromium is from the Greek word “chroma” meaning “colour“, so named because of the many different coloured compounds displayed by chromium.

A year or two after Vauquelin’s discovery, a German chemist named Tassaert working in Paris found chromium in an ore now called chromite. This ore, Fe(CrO₂)₂, is now an important source of chromium.

Chromium was long thought to be a toxic mineral. In 1957 it was discovered to be an essential element of glucose tolerance factor (GTF). GTF (and thus chromium) is a vital molecule in regulating carbohydrate metabolism by enhancing insulin function for proper use of glucose in the body.

Chromium is an essential nutrient required for normal sugar and fat metabolism and works primarily by potentiating the action of insulin. It is present in the entire body but with the highest concentrations in the liver, kidneys, spleen and bone.

Chromium is needed for energy, maintains stable blood sugar levels. In cooperation with other substances, it controls insulin as well as certain enzymes. It works with GTF (Glucose Tolerance Factor) when this hormone-affiliated agent enters the bloodstream because of an increase of insulin in the bloodstream. GTF (containing niacin, vitamin B3, glycine, cysteine, glutamic acid, etc.) enhances insulin, which results in the sugars passing quicker into the cells and in that way they are removed from the bloodstream. By stabilizing the blood sugar level it also assists in regulating the cholesterol in the blood.

Natural chromium levels decline with age and so with the action of the GTF. Although chromium picolinate is readily absorbed by the body, and is one of the best types of chromium when it comes to absorption, it will only be absorbed it if there is a shortage of chromium. Chromium picolinate has been used as a carbohydrate-burning supplement for some time and has proved very successful. (Chromium picolinate is chromium chelated with picolinate – a natural amino acid metabolite). It is also required in synthesis of fats, protein and carbohydrates, and may assist in preventing coronary artery disease.

A shortage of chromium may also lead to anxiety, fatigue, glucose intolerance (particularly in people with diabetes), Adult-onset diabetes, glycosuria, hunger, weight loss, nausea, fatigue, protein and lipid metabolism problems and decreased growth rates, inadequate metabolism of amino acids, and an increased risk of arteriosclerosis. Disorders that may result because of a chromium deficiency: adult-onset diabetes, atherosclerosis, cataracts, growth retardation, heart disease, hypercholesterolemia, impotence, frigidity, immunodeficiency, nervous system disorders, weight loss.

Tissue levels of chromium tend to decrease with age, which may be a factor in the increase of adult-onset diabetes, a disease whose incidence has risen more than six fold in the past 50 years. This increase may mirror the loss of chromium from our diets because of soil deficiency and the refinement of foods.

Chromium recently has been shown to lower blood cholesterol while mildly raising HDL (high-density lipoprotein), the good portion of cholesterol. This lowers the risk ratio for coronary artery disease. (Exercise is a key factor in raising HDL cholesterol and reducing coronary artery disease risk. Exercise also promotes the efficiency of insulin-mediated uptake of glucose into cells.)

Chromium picolinate is chromium chelated with picolinate – a natural amino acid metabolite and is helpful in assisting with the loss of fat and increased lean muscle tissue. Chromium picolinate in this form is the most bio-available. Avoid chromium chloride, which is found in some supplements. It is mostly un-absorbable.

Cobalt (Co)

Minerals containing cobalt were of value to the early civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia for colouring glass deep blue. Cobalt was announced to be an element by Georg Brandt about 1739 (or possibly 1735). He had been trying to demonstrate that the blue colour of glass was because of a new element, cobalt, rather than bismuth, an element often found in the same locations as cobalt. Cobalt was originally named from the German word “kobald” meaning “goblin” or evil spirit.

Cobalt salts in small amounts are essential to many life forms, including humans. It is at the core of a vitamin called vitamin-B₁₂. Grazing animals do not to do well in areas where there is little cobalt in the soil.

Cobalt is a brittle, hard, transition metal with magnetic properties similar to those of iron. Cobalt is present in meteorites. Ore deposits are found in Zaire, Morocco and Canada. Cobalt-60 (⁶⁰Co) is an artificially produced isotope used as a source of g rays (high energy radiation). Cobalt salts colour glass a beautiful deep blue colour.

Signs of deficiency: Anemia, anorexia, bleeding gums, confusion, dementia, depression, difficulty maintaining balance, headache, nausea, numb and tingling extremities, pale gums, pale lips, pale tongue, poor memory, retarded growth, shortness of breath, sore tongue, weakness in the arms and legs, weight loss, yellow eyes and skin. However, if a normal diet is followed a deficiency is most unlikely.

An excessively high intake of cobalt may damage the heart muscles, and may cause an over-production of red blood cells or damage to the thyroid gland.

Signs of toxicity : Cardiomyopathy, erythrocytosis, polycythemia, enlarged thyroid, diarrhea, fatigue, heart palpitations, numbness, and paleness. Some beers are cobalt-stabilized.

Since cobalt is part of the vitamin B12 molecule, the function of cobalt is interwoven with that of vitamin B12.

Copper (Cu)

Copper and zinc absorption is closely related, and although copper is also needed in relatively small amounts, some discussions are under way on the optimum need of this mineral. If large amounts of copper are present, then zinc and vitamin C is reduced in the body, and vice versa.

Copper is necessary for the absorption & utilization of Iron; helps oxidize Vitamin C and works with Vitamin C to form Elastin, a chief component of the Elastin muscle fibers throughout the body; aids in the formation of red blood cells; helps proper bone formation & maintenance.

Copper is required in the formation of hemoglobin, red blood cells as well as bones, while it helps with the formation of elastin as well as collagen – making it necessary for wound healing. A lack of copper may also lead to increased blood fat levels. It is also necessary for the manufacture of the neurotransmitter noradrenaline as well as for the pigmentation of your hair.

Copper can be stored in the body, and daily presence in the diet is therefore not necessary. If copper is deficient in the body, iron is also normally in short supply, leading to anemia as well as the likelihood for infections, osteoporosis, thinning of bones, thyroid gland dysfunction, heart disease as well as nervous system problems. Signs of deficiency: Anemia with weakness, labored breathing, skin sores, puffiness or swelling around ankles and wrists, skin problems including eczema, frequent infections, fatigue, loss of bone mass, osteoporosis, chronic deficiencies may contribute to higher cancer rate, increased cell damage, aging, and shorter life span. Excess calcium, iron, zinc, lead, silver, molybdenum and sulfur reduce copper utilization.

Copper toxicity’s can result in serious mental and physical illness, schizophrenia, autism, hypertension, stuttering, depression, insomnia, toxemia, hyperactivity, hypoglycemia, and senility. High levels of copper have been detected in victims of malignancies, tumors of digestive system, lung and breast, Hodgkin’s disease, systemic cancers like leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, brown facial spots, brown nipples, headaches, fatigue, constipation, PMS, schizophrenia. Toxic levels will lead to diarrhea, vomiting, liver damage as well as discoloration of the skin and hair, while mild excesses will result in fatigue, irritability, depression and loss of concentration and learning disabilities. Children getting too much copper may have hyperactive tendencies.

The absorption of large amounts of vitamin C, zinc can negatively influence the level of copper in the body, while large amounts of fructose can make a copper deficiency worse.

Copper is best absorbed and utilized in the body when cobalt, iron, zinc and folic acid is available. Should extra zinc supplements be taken, your need for copper may be increased. Be careful of having any liquids stored in copper containers, as the liquid could have absorbed too much of the copper.

Copper is made available from a variety of foods, such as whole grains, liver, molasses, and nuts, but water from copper pipes will also carry copper in it, and copper cooking utensils will also add more copper to be ingested.

Fluoride (F)

Fluorine, as fluoride, is found in the earth’s crust in combination with other minerals, and is also part of seawater. Fluoride is available naturally in the diet as calcium and sodium fluoride. It is sodium fluoride that is added to the drinking water of many cities.

Fluorine is a constituent of bones and teeth, but since it is very seldom added to supplements, we have not identified a large volume of data on this element.

In some areas, fluoride ion is added to drinking water (in very low concentrations) since it renders tooth enamel relatively immune to bacteriological attack. It does this by replacing the OH group of hydroxyapatite with fluoride. In other areas, fluoride is not added to water, despite its proposed benefits, as a consequence of protests from civil rights activists who object to the addition of anything to water.

Fluoride has no known function other than strengthening teeth and bones which a subject of debate in recent years. About half of ingested fluoride, about 3 mg. per day, is eliminated through the kidneys and a little more through perspiration. The remainder is stored mainly in the bones.

Signs of deficiency: Excessive tooth decay, osteoporosis. Excess calcium, aluminum and fat lower fluorine absorption.

Symptoms of high intake and signs of toxicity: teeth stained with mottled spots (known as dental fluorosis), stomach cramps, pain, faintness, vomiting, diarrhea, black stools, shallow breathing, tremors, increased saliva, deformed teeth and bones, osteomalacia. Fluorine can disrupt body’s ability to use vitamins, retard growth, calcification of tendons and ligaments, can damage reproductive organs, adrenal glands, CNS, brain, kidneys, heart.

There is some evidence that it is effective in the treatment of osteoporosis, as an increase in the retention of calcium was noted, together with a reduction of bone demineralization, by some people treated with fluorine salts.

Iodine (I)

Iodine was discovered by Barnard Courtois in 1811. He isolated iodine from treating seaweed ash with sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) while recovering sodium and potassium compounds. It was originally named from the Greek word “iodes” meaning “violet”.

Iodine is a good example of a trace mineral whose deficiency creates a disease that is easily corrected by resupplying it in the diet. Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland, develops when this important metabolic gland does not have enough iodine to manufacture hormones. As it increases its cell size to try to trap more iodine, the whole gland increases in size, creating a swelling in the neck. Without supplemental iodine, a hypothyroid condition results, likely leading to fatigue and sluggishness, weight gain, and coldness of the body; at this stage, the condition may be harder to treat with iodine alone and thyroid hormone supplementation may be needed.

Plants do not need iodine, but humans require it for the production of thyroid hormones that regulate the metabolic energy of the body and set the basal metabolic rate. Iodine in our food is dependent on the iodine found in the ground where the food is grown, in the food animals receive, as it influences the iodine content in the meat and eggs we consume.

Iodine is used in the production of hormones (such as thyroxine, thyroxin) by the thyroid gland, which in turn regulates the conversion of fat to energy, stabilizing our body weight as well as controlling our cholesterol levels. These hormones produced from the iodine are also needed to help form our bones, as well as keeping our skin, nails, hair and teeth in prime condition. Some indication also exists that iodine is helpful in preventing cancer of the breast and womb.

Iodine is not stored in the body, but various items in our diet do supply iodine, so a shortage does not happen overnight. When iodine is deficient the thyroid gland enlarges (referred to as a goiter) to maximize the amount of iodine to be extracted from the blood, and if this problem is not corrected, a shortage of this hormone in the body may lead to constipation, obesity, weakness, mental slowness as well as mental problems. Goiter is not always the cause of iodine deficiency, but can, in some cases, be caused by certain micro-organisms. Iodine is also thought to help protect the thyroid from the effects of radiation, and the Polish government handed out iodine tablets to their population after the explosion at Chernobyl. Other deficiencies include in newborns, cretinism — delayed growth and swollen features. Also may lead to slow mental reactions, dry hair, hardening of arteries, obesity, lethargy, intolerance to cold, and during pregnancy and infancy can produce mental and physical retardation. Deficiencies are rare and effects can be reversed with supplements. Fibrocystic disease of the breast is linked to iodine deficiency.

Iodine is rapidly eliminated from the body, so high intake or toxicity is not very likely, but if your diet is supplemented with too much kelp or iodine you could have problems with acne or skin rashes. When iodine in the soil is very low, or if very little seafood is consumed, a person may want to check their iodine intake, or when breast feeding or pregnant as well as being on a sea-salt restricted diet.

If you have an under-active thyroid try and avoid large amounts of raw cabbage, peaches, pears, spinach and Brussels sprouts as they may block the absorption of iodine. Iodine is found in eggs, milk, sea fish and sea food, sea vegetables – such as kelp, asparagus, etc.

Iron (Fe)

From the Anglo-Saxon word “iron” or “iren” (the origin of the symbol Fe comes from the Latin word “ferrum” meaning “iron”). Possibly the word iron is derived from earlier words meaning “holy metal” because it was used to make the swords used in the Crusades.

Iron is an essential element carrying oxygen, forming part of the oxygen-carrying proteins – hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscles. It is also a component of various enzymes and is concentrated in bone marrow, liver, and spleen. Iron is required for the production of hemoglobin and myoglobin (the form of hemoglobin found in muscle tissue) requires this nutrient. It is also needed for the oxygenation of red blood cells, a healthy immune system and for energy production.

Iron deficiency is an all-too-common problem. Iron deficiency is more common in infancy, childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy. Severe iron deficiency results in anemia, and red blood cells that have a low hemoglobin concentration. Anemia in pregnancy increases the risk of having a premature baby or a baby with low birth weight. In young children, iron deficiency can manifest in behavioral abnormalities (including reduced attention), reduced cognitive performance and slow growth. In adults, severe iron deficiency anemia impairs physical work capacity. Symptoms of iron deficiency may include fatigue, poor stamina, intestinal bleeding, excessive menstrual bleeding, nervousness, heart palpitations and shortness of breath. It may also cause your mouth corners to crack, brittle hair, difficulty in swallowing, digestive disturbances and spoon shaped nails with ridges running lengthwise. Women in their reproductive years have a greater problem with iron deficiency because of losses in menstrual blood and higher requirements.

More signs of deficiency are shown in listlessness, heart palpitations, fatigue, irritability, pale skin, cracking lips and tongue, difficulty swallowing. Anemia and fatigue most common in infants and among women of reproductive age, frequent sickness or infections and chronic malaise. Iron-deficiency anemia reduces number of red blood cells, common in infants and children, can retard intellectual development of babies and preschool children, teenage girls at high risk, 1/3 of all young women have low iron stores, low iron leaves women particularly vulnerable to Candida. Adult men and women – deficiency may be caused by internal bleeding through ulcers, intestinal polyps, or hemorrhoids. Too much aspirin or too much alcohol can contribute to iron deficiency. High doses of vitamin E can interfere with iron absorption.

High iron content in the body has been linked to cancer and heart disease. People of European origin, sometimes have a genetic abnormality for storing excessive iron (1:300) where ten percent of these populations carry a gene for hemochromatosis. Iron supplements are the leading cause of death in children – so keep the supplements out of the reach of children. A fatal dose for children could be as little as 600 milligrams. Iron can be poisonous and if too much is taken over a long period could result in liver and heart damage, diabetes and skin changes. Large iron supplementation may also contribute to the hardening of arteries, heart disease and reducing zinc absorption.

Symptoms of high intake and toxicity can occur in liver toxicity, induced vitamin C deficiency, metallic gray hue to skin or bronzing of skin. Excess iron can deplete phosphorus. Iron can accumulate to dangerous levels in patients with chonic kidney failure, Hodgkin’s disease or rheumatoid arthritis. Prolonged use of high doses of iron can cause hemochromatosis and lead to diabetes, liver damage, impotence, heart problems and skin bronzing.

Iron absorption is negatively affected when oxalic acid – found in spinach, Swiss chard, tea, coffee, soy and some pulses. Antacid medication, coffee and tea drinkers at mealtimes, people on calorie restricted diets and women with a heavy flow during menstruation may require more iron. Iron lost from the body must be replaced through dietary iron, but this often takes time and requires a regular source from food or supplements.

Heme iron (present in red blood cells and muscles) found in meat, poultry and fish – is readily absorbed; Non-heme iron – with the absorption more influenced by other dietary factors, are present in cereals, fruits, grains, beans and vegetables.

Some research being conducted is to test the possibility of high iron stores in the body being responsible for an increased risk to chronic diseases, such as cancer and heart disease, through oxidative mechanisms.

Lithium (Li)

Lithium is usually found in nature not as a metal but as lithium salts. Its name comes from lithos, the Greek word for “stone,” as the lithium crystals are beautiful and very hard rocks.

The mineral petalite (which contains lithium) was discovered by the Brazilian scientist José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva towards the end of the 18th century while visiting Sweden. Lithium was discovered by Johan August Arfvedson in 1817 during an analysis of petalite ore, an ore now recognised to be LiAl(Si₂O₅)₂, taken from the Swedish island of Utö. Arfvedson subsequently discovered lithium in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite. C.G. Gmelin observed in 1818 that lithium salts colour flames bright red. Neither Gmelin nor Arfvedson were able to isolate the element itself from lithium salts. The first isolation of elemental lithium was achieved later by W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy by the electrolysis of lithium oxide. In 1855, Bunsen and Mattiessen isolated larger quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride. In 1923 the first commercial production of lithium metal was achieved by Metallgesellschaft AG in Germany using the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride, exploiting a suggestion made by Guntz in 1893.

Aside from hydrogen, which is present in almost all of life, lithium is the lightest element in use. It is unique among the minerals in that it is used in medical treatment of manic-depressive disorders, commonly as lithium carbonate. It is chemically similar to sodium and can displace sodium (and vice versa) in many bodily reactions. Its involvement in sodium transport across cell membranes probably accounts for lithium’s therapeutic support of people with manic disorders. Although it has been used in this area since about 1950, its acceptance has been slow, possibly because it is a natural mineral and not as profitable for the pharmaceutical companies as synthetic drugs. Recent evidence indicates that lithium may be an essential element, needed in trace amounts (minute in comparison to the high doses used in treatment).

We have in our body only about 2-3 mg. of lithium. Absorption from the intestine is good, about 70-90 percent. People with mania often have very good absorption of lithium. Excess lithium is eliminated in urine and feces.

Lithium compounds are regarded as slightly toxic, and perhaps more so than the other Group 1 elements. Lithium appears not to have a biological role, which is not to say that lithium compounds do not have an affect. Sometimes, lithium-based drugs such as lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) are used to treat manic-depressive disorders in doses of around 0.5 g – 2 g daily. Some side effects are known. Ingestion of large amounts of lithium results in drowsiness, slurred speech, vomiting, and other symptoms. Excess lithium poisons the central nervous system.

Lithium’s main use is in treating manic-depressive disorders, for which it is used in what could be considered mega dosages. Certain depression problems, probably those sensitive to sodium transport difficulties, may be helped by lithium, even where there is little or no manic component. Manic symptoms of insomnia, hyperactivity, talkativeness, grandiose thinking, and delusions can usually be controlled with lithium therapy. Dosages of between 600 and 1000 mg. per day are needed to obtain the appropriate blood level to treat mania.

Lithium has occasionally been used in treating alcoholism, where it apparently decreased the taste for alcohol and generated a more cheerful attitude toward life. Lithium treatment does, however, produce some side effects, such as a metallic taste in the mouth, increased thirst, and more frequent urination. It is not routinely taken as a nutritional supplement but is used primarily as a medicinal drug.

Magnesium (Mg)

In 1618 a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a well. This they refused to drink because of the water’s bitter taste. However the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The fame of Epsom salts spread. Eventually they were recognised to be magnesium sulphate, MgSO₄. Black recognized magnesium as an element in 1755. It was isolated by Davy in 1808 who electrolysed a mixture of magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) and mercuric oxide (HgO). From the Greek word “Magnesia”, a district of Thessaly, where large deposits of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) were found. Davy’s first suggestion for a name was “magnium” but the name “magnesium” is now used.

Magnesium is a very important essential macromineral, even though there are only several ounces in the body (0.05 percent of body weight). It is involved in several hundred enzymatic reactions, many of which contribute to production of energy and cardiovascular function. The great amount of research on magnesium done in the last decade has resulted in major changes in our knowledge. Decreases in magnesium intake have been more prevalent in our American diet with additions of supplemental vitamin D and calcium, dietary phosphorus, and refined or processed carbohydrate foods. Drinking soft water decreases magnesium intake, while diuretic drugs cause magnesium loss, as do alcohol, caffeine, and sugar. Decreased blood and tissue levels of magnesium have been shown to be related to high blood pressure, kidney stones, heart disease and, particularly, heart attacks due to coronary artery spasm (magnesium helps relax and dilate coronary arteries). Studies have indicated that a decreased concentration of magnesium is found in the heart and blood of heart attack victims, though it is not clear whether this is a cause or a result of the problem. Magnesium’s role in alleviating premenstrual syndrome (PMS) has made big news as well.

Drinking soft water decreases magnesium intake, while diuretic drugs cause magnesium loss, as do alcohol, caffeine, and sugar. Decreased blood and tissue levels of magnesium have been shown to be related to high blood pressure, kidney stones, heart disease and, particularly, heart attacks due to coronary artery spasm (magnesium helps relax and dilate coronary arteries).

Magnesium helps with formation of bone and teeth and assists the absorption of calcium and potassium. Where calcium stimulates the muscles, magnesium is used to relax the muscles. It is further needed for cellular metabolism and the production of energy through its help with enzyme activity. It is used for muscle tone of the heart and assists in controlling blood pressure. Together with vitamin B12, it may prevent calcium oxalate kidney stones. It helps prevent depression, dizziness, muscle twitching, and pre-menstrual syndrome. It can help prevent the calcification of soft tissue and may help prevent cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and certain forms of cancer, and it may reduce cholesterol levels. Magnesium assists the parathyroid gland to process vitamin D, and a shortage here can cause absorption problems with calcium.

A severe deficiency caused by mal-absorption, chronic alcoholism, renal dysfunction, or the use of certain medications can cause neuromuscular manifestations, and personality changes can occur. Many cardiovascular problems are indicated with magnesium in short supply and rapid heartbeats as well as fatigue, irritability, and seizure can occur. Insomnia, poor memory, painful periods, depression, hypertension and confusion may also be indicative shortage of magnesium in the body. It is used for the management of premature labor, and for the prophylaxis and treatment of seizures in toxemia of pregnancy. A deficiency may also be a contributing factor to incontinence in older people and bedwetting in children. Bruxism can predispose one to cardiac-rhythm abnormalities, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, hallucinations, irritability, loss of appetite, nausea, nervousness. Over time a deficiency may create cardiovascular problems, skin disorders, tachycardia, tremors, uncontrolled muscle contractions, vomiting. Deficient in alcoholics. Average American gets only 3/4 of RDA.

Many factors affect magnesium availability from foods. One is the amount of magnesium in the soil in which the food is grown. Much magnesium can be lost in the processing and refining of foods and in making oils from the magnesium-rich nuts and seeds. Nearly 85 percent of the magnesium in grains is lost during the milling of flours. Soaking and boiling foods can leach magnesium into the water, so the “pot liquor” from cooking vegetables may be high in magnesium and other minerals. Oxalic acid in vegetables such as spinach and chard and phytic acid in some grains may form insoluble salts with magnesium, causing it to be eliminated rather than absorbed. For these reasons and those previously discussed, many people get insufficient magnesium from their diets. Magnesium is found in dairy products, fish, meat and seafood, as well as in legumes, apples, apricots, avocados, bananas, whole grain cereals, nuts, dark green vegetables, and cocoa, while hard water and mineral water may also supply it in fair quantities.

Manganese (Mn)

Manganese metal was isolated by Johann Gahn in 1774. He reduced the dioxide (MnO₂, as the mineral pyrolusite) with charcoal (essentially carbon) by heating and the result was a sample of the metal manganese. The origin of name “Manganese” is from the Latin word “magnes” meaning “magnet“, or “magnesia nigri” meaning “black magnesia” (MnO₂).

The metal is gray-white, resembling iron, but is harder and very brittle. The metal is reactive chemically, and decomposes cold water slowly. Manganese is widely distributed throughout the animal kingdom. It is an important trace element and may be essential for utilisation of vitamin B. Manganese is present in quantity on the floor of oceans. It is an important component of steel.

Manganese, little known and underrated by both doctors and the general public, is an essential mineral important to many enzyme systems in carrying out such functions as energy production, protein metabolism, and bone formation, and the synthesis of L-dopamine, cholesterol, and mucopolysaccharides.

Manganese enables the body to utilize vitamin C, B1, biotin as well as choline. It is used in the manufacture of fat, sex hormones and breast milk in females. It is thought to also help neutralize free radicals as well as being of assistance in preventing diabetes and needed for normal nerve function. Manganese is also indicated in stimulating growth of the connective tissue and is also thought to be of importance in brain functioning.

In the food chain, most manganese is present in plant tissues, mainly in nuts, seeds, and whole grains, but in most vegetables as well, particularly the dark leafy greens. Like that of iron, our absorption of manganese is low; utilization of manganese from the diet has been estimated in the range of 15 — 30 percent efficiency.

Deficiencies are rare but would include poor bone growth, problems with the disks between the vertebrae, birth defects, convulsions, deafness, growth retardation, paralysis, reproductive difficulty and problems with blood glucose levels. Serious deficiency in children can result in paralysis, deafness and blindness. Manganese is not easily absorbed but since small amounts are needed deficiencies are not very general.

Whether manganese is useful in the treatment of diabetes by helping glucose metabolism or in people with osteoarthritis by stimulating mucopolysaccharide production to heal joints is still undemonstrated and questionable. It is more likely that a manganese deficiency reduces our ability to handle glucose and may thus worsen a diabetic condition. Manganese has also been tried in treatment for multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis. When given with B vitamins, manganese may alleviate fatigue or weakness by enhancing nerve impulses. Research has found most tumors and cancer cells to be very low in this mineral, which suggests a possibility that manganese may have a role in preventing cancer cell production and protecting against cancer growth.

Manganese has been helpful in some cases of fatigue (possibly by enhancing certain enzymes), poor memory (by protecting brain tissue and helping oxygenation), and nervousness, irritability, or dizziness. In his book Mental and Elemental Nutrients, Carl Pfeiffer, M.D., suggests that manganese along with zinc will help decrease copper levels by both decreasing absorption and increasing urinary losses. He feels that copper in higher than normal amounts can cause psychological problems and even some forms of schizophrenia (see the earlier section on Copper). Also, by some unknown mechanism, manganese may help reduce some of the parkinsonian symptoms, such as muscle rigidity and twitching, secondary to phenothiazine drug use. Manganese supplementation may also help in some cases of epilepsy.

Manganese has been used as a therapeutic nutrient, but other than preventing problems of manganese deficiency, its influence on certain disease states seems only anecdotal to date; further research will provide us with more evidence. The superoxide dismutase enzymes, only one of which contains manganese (others utilize zinc or copper), have an anti-inflammatory effect in the body, and this function may be relevant to many of the possible uses suggested here.

Toxicity by diet is rare. Delusions, hallucinations, insomnia, depression, impotency, irritability, mental illness, motor difficulties, weakness are signs of toxicity. Symptoms of excessive intake are similar to Parkinson’s disease and Wilson’s disease. Miners who are exposed to high levels of manganese, which can also be inhaled, can end up with “manganese madness”.

Manganese is lost in milling. Absorption is also negatively influenced in the presence of large amounts of calcium, phosphorous, zinc, cobalt and soy protein. Manganese is depleted in the soil by extensive use of chemical fertilizers or too much lime, and food grown in such soil will have a low manganese content.

A higher intake may be necessary when breast-feeding or when taking a calcium or phosphorous supplement.

Nuts and whole grains are the best sources of manganese. Most animal foods have low levels, though egg yolks are a decent source. Seeds, legumes (peas and beans), and leafy greens, especially spinach, are all good sources of manganese if there is manganese in the soil in which these plants are grown. Alfalfa is high, and black teas and coffee beans have some manganese.

Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum is a silvery-white, hard, transition metal. The name “Molybdenum” is from the Greek word “molybdos” meaning “lead”. Scheele discovered it in 1778. It was often confused with graphite and lead ore. Molybdenum is used in alloys, electrodes and catalysts. The World War 2 German artillery piece called “Big Bertha” contains molybdenum as an essential component of its steel. In 1778 Carl Welhelm Scheele conducted research on an ore now known as molybdenite. He concluded that it did not contain lead as was suspected at the time and reported that the mineral contained a new element that he called molybdenum after the mineral. Molybdenum metal was prepared in an impure form in 1782 by Peter Jacob Hjelm.

Molybdenum is considered one of our essential trace minerals. It has been found to be essential in most mammals, as well as in all plants. We obtain it primarily from foods, but since it is often scarce in the earth’s crust and therefore deficient in many soils, molybdenum deficiency can be a problem. In fact, it was recently discovered that molybdenum deficiency in the soil in an area of China was responsible for the highest known incidence of esophageal carcinoma over many generations.

Molybdenum is a component of three different enzymes, which is involved in the metabolism of nucleic acids – DNA & RNA – iron as well as food into energy. Molybdenum is a vital part of three important enzyme systems—xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase—and so has a vital role in uric acid formation and iron utilization, in carbohydrate metabolism, and sulfite detoxification as well. In the soil and possibly in the body, as the enzyme nitrate reductase, molybdenum can reduce the production or counteract the actions of nitrosamines, known cancer-causing chemicals, especially in the colon. Found more in molybdenum-deficient soils, nitrosamines have been associated with high rates of esophageal cancer.

Molybdenum assists in the breaking down of sulfite toxin build-ups in the body, and may prevent cavities. With these qualities, there might be evidence of antioxidant properties in this nutrient. It assists the body by fighting the nitrosamines, which are associated with cancer, and may help to prevent anemia. It is needed for normal cell function and nitrogen metabolism.

Molybdenum deficiencies in older males have also been linked to impotence and may be of value in fighting mouth and gum disorders. Molybdenum is part of sulfite oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down sulfites. Sulfites are found in protein food as well as chemical preservatives in certain foods and drugs. Should your body not be able to break down these sulfites, a toxic build-up results, and your body may react with an allergic reaction. These allergic reactions can be respiratory problems such as asthma and others. Molybdenum is also part of xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase – both involved in the body’s production of genetic material and proteins. Xanthine oxidase also helps the body to oxidize purines and pyrimidines, and produce uric acid, an important waste product.

Molybdenum may help prevent anemia by helping mobilize iron, provided there are sufficient iron stores. The suggestions that it protects the teeth from dental caries and that it prevents sexual impotence are not yet supported by definitive research. Molybdenum deficiency may reduce uric acid formation; this was not previously thought to be a problem, but it may be important to supplement molybdenum to maintain uric acid levels in midnormal range for the antioxidant function as well as possible others.

Deficiencies of molybdenum are identified by the absence of the three molybdenum enzymes. The deficiency of this element and the metabolic disorders are accompanied by abnormal excretion of sulfur metabolites, low uric acid concentrations, and elevated hypoxanthine and xanthine excretion. The absences of sulfite oxidase in metabolic disorder can lead to death at an early age. High rates of esophageal cancer have been reported in regions where the soil levels of molybdenum are low as well as vitamin C intake – although this does not clinically prove that molybdenum might be involved with prevention of certain cancers.

In nature, molybdenum is found as part of other metal complexes. In the soil, it serves as a catalyst to the nitrogen-fixing process; thus, decreased soil molybdenum can lead to deficient plant growth. The food levels of molybdenum depend largely on soil content. The amount in food may be increased a hundredfold with molybdenum-rich soil; in certain areas, hard water may contain some molybdenum. Soft water and refined foods contain hardly any. Whole grains, particularly the germ, usually have substantial amounts; oats, buckwheat, and wheat germ are some examples of grains containing molybdenum. Many vegetables and legumes are also good sources; these include lima beans, green beans, lentils, potatoes, spinach and other dark leafy greens, cauliflower, peas, and soybeans. Brewer’s yeast also has some, and liver and organ meats are often fairly high in molybdenum.

Phosphorous (P)

Phosphorus was discovered in 1669 by Hennig Brand, who prepared it from urine. Not less than 50-60 buckets per experiment in fact, each of which required more than a fortnight to complete. The origin of the name is from the Greek word “phosphoros” meaning “bringer of light” (an ancient name for the planet Venus?).

Phosphorus is commonly misspelled “phosphorous”. It is an essential component of living systems and is found in nervous tissue, bones and cell protoplasm. Phosphorus exists in several allotropic forms including white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). White phosphorus has two modifications. Ordinary phosphorus is a waxy white solid. When pure, it is colourless and transparent. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulphide. It catches fire spontaneously in air, burning to P₄O₁₀, often misnamed as phosphorus pentoxide. When exposed to sunlight, or when heated in its own vapour to 250°C, it is converted to the red variety. This form does not ignite spontaneously and it is a little less dangerous than white phosphorus. The red modification is fairly stable and sublimes with a vapour pressure of 1 atmosphere at 417°C.

Phosphorus, the second most abundant element (after calcium) present in our bodies, makes up about 1 percent of our total body weight. It is present in every cell, but 85 percent of the phosphorus is found in the bones and teeth. In the bones, phosphorus is present in the phosphate form as the bone salt calcium phosphate in an amount about half that of the total calcium. Both these important minerals are in constant turnover, even in the bone structure.

Phosphorus is very involved with bone and teeth formation as well as most metabolic actions in the body, including kidney functioning, cell growth and the contraction of the heart muscle. The main inorganic component of bone is calcium phosphate salts while cell membranes are composed largely of phospholipids. While it assists the body in vitamin use (especially some B group vitamins), it also is involved in converting food to energy.

Phosphorus is involved in many functions besides forming bones and teeth. Like calcium, it is found in all cells and is involved in some way in most biochemical reactions. Phosphorus is vital to energy production and exchange in a variety of ways. It provides the phosphate in adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the high-energy carrier molecule in the body’s primary metabolic cycles. Phosphorus is important to the utilization of carbohydrates and fats for energy production and also in protein synthesis for the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues and cells. As inorganic phosphate in ATP, it is needed in protein synthesis and in the production of the nucleic acids in DNA and RNA, which carry the genetic code for all cells.

Phosphorus also helps in kidney function and acts as a buffer for acid-base balance in the body. Phosphorus aids muscle contraction, including the regularity of the heartbeat, and is also supportive of proper nerve conduction. This important mineral supports the conversion of niacin and riboflavin to their active coenzyme forms. As mentioned, parathyroid hormone regulates the phosphorus blood level and helps it carry out all these essential functions.

Phosphorus has been used to treat many kinds of bone problems; it (along with calcium) helps in healing fractures by minimizing calcium loss from bones. It is used in the treatment of osteolmalacia, where there is decreased bone mineral content, and in osteoporosis, where total bone mass is decreased. Rickets has also been treated with phosphorus, as well as with calcium and vitamin D. Tooth and gum problems can be alleviated with dietary phosphorus, again in balance with calcium. Cancer research has revealed that cancer cells tend to lose phosphorus more readily than do normal cells, so phosphorus may be useful in the nutritional support of cancer patients; however, a high phosphorus-to-calcium intake is to be avoided.

Symptoms of phosphorus deficiency may include anorexia, appetite loss, arthritis, depression, irregular breathing, malaise, mental fatigue, nerve disorders, pain in bones, physical fatigue, pyorrhea, rickets, tooth decay, weakness, weight loss, irritability, anxiety, stiff joints, paresthesias, bone pain, and bone fragility. Decreased growth, poor bone and tooth development, and symptoms of rickets may occur in phosphorus-deficient children. In adults, as mentioned, a low calcium-to-phosphorus ratio is most likely to generate problems. Osteoporosis (bone resorption) is often brought on by high phosphorus and low calcium intake. Other adult problems include skin disease, tooth decay, and even arthritis. Low vitamin D intake can also lead to deficient body phosphorus.

Since phosphorus is part of all cells, it is readily found in food, especially animal tissues. Most protein foods are high in phosphorus. Meats, fish, chicken, turkey, milk, cheese, and eggs all contain substantial amounts. Most red meats and poultry have much more phosphorus than calcium-between 10 and 20 times as much-whereas fish generally has about 2 or 3 times as much phosphorus as calcium. The dairy foods have a more balanced calcium-phosphorus ratio. Seeds and nuts also contain good levels of phosphorus (although they have less calcium) as do the whole grains, brewer’s yeast, and wheat germ and bran. Most fruits and vegetables contain some phosphorus and help to balance the ratio of phosphorus to calcium in a wholesome diet.

Potassium (K)

Until the 18th century no distinction was made between potassium and sodium. This was because early chemists did not recognise that “vegetable alkali” (K₂CO₃, potassium carbonate, coming from deposits in the earth) and “mineral alkali” (Na₂CO₃, sodium carbonate, derived from wood ashes) are distinct from each other. Eventually a distinction was made. Well before potassium was recognized as an element, potassium carbonate was mixed with animal fat to make soap. The carbonate was made by extracting wood ash with water before concentration by boiling — hence the name “potash” for potassium salts.

Potassium was isolated in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who obtained it through the electrolysis of very dry molten caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide). Potassium collected at the cathode. Potassium was the first metal isolated by electrolysis. Davy isolated sodium by a similar procedure later in 1807. The origin of the name is from the English word “potash” (pot ashes) and the Arabic word “qali” meaning alkali (the origin of the symbol “K” comes from the Latin word “kalium”).

Potassium is the seventh most abundant minerals and makes up about 1.5% by weight of the earth’s crust. Potassium is an essential constituent for plant growth and it is found in most soils. It is also a vital element in the human diet. Potassium is never found free in nature, but is obtained by electrolysis of the chloride or hydroxide, much in the same manner as prepared by Davy. It is one of the most reactive and electropositive of metals and, apart from lithium, it is the least dense known metal. It is soft and easily cut with a knife. It is silvery in appearance immediately after a fresh surface is exposed.

Potassium is a very significant body mineral, important to both cellular and electrical function. It is one of the main blood minerals called “electrolytes” (the others are sodium and chloride), which means it carries a tiny electrical charge (potential). Potassium is the primary positive ion (cation) found within the cells, where 98 percent of the 120 grams of potassium in the body is found.

Potassium is very important in the human body. Along with sodium, it regulates the water balance and the acid-base balance in the blood and tissues. Potassium enters the cell more readily than does sodium and instigates the brief sodium-potassium exchange across the cell membranes. In the nerve cells, this sodium-potassium flux generates the electrical potential that aids the conduction of nerve impulses. When potassium leaves the cell, it changes the membrane potential and allows the nerve impulse to progress. This electrical potential gradient, created by the “sodium-potassium pump,” helps generate muscle contractions and regulates the heartbeat.

Potassium is very important in cellular biochemical reactions and energy metabolism; it participates in the synthesis of protein from amino acids in the cell. Potassium also functions in carbohydrate metabolism; it is active in glycogen and glucose metabolism, converting glucose to glycogen that can be stored in the liver for future energy. Potassium is important for normal growth and for building muscles.

Potassium is needed for growth, building muscles, transmission of nerve impulses, heart activity, etc. Potassium, together with sodium – potassium inside the cell and sodium in the fluid surrounding the cell, work together for the nervous system to transmit messages as well as regulating the contraction of muscles.

The kidneys excrete any excesses, but deficiencies are seldom found in people on normal diets, although most people could look at increasing their potassium intake. A deficiency may result in fatigue, constipation, cramping legs, muscle weakness, slow reflexes, acne, dry skin, mood changes, irregular heartbeat, irregular pulse, lack of appetite. Low potassium leads to altered heart rhythm and muscle weakness, mental apathy, muscle cramps while exercising, muscle fatigue, physical and mental stress. Deficiency can occur with excessive fluid loss from sweating, diuretic medications, diarrhea.

If you are into bodybuilding, it is also a good idea to increase your potassium intake, since potassium is needed to maintain your muscles in good form, controlling your muscle actions, and since potassium is lost in excessive sweating and urine. A great way to include this in your diet is to have a banana, citrus fruit or even a dash of apple cider vinegar.

Potassium is well absorbed from the small intestine, with about 90 percent absorption, but is one of the most soluble minerals, so it is easily lost in cooking and processing foods. Potassium is easily lost in the urine, and if large amounts of salt is ingested, it may be wise to take a potassium supplement. If you are suffering from vomiting, diarrhea or extreme sweating you may require more potassium or if your diet includes mostly processed foods, large amounts of caffeine, alcohol, or if you take diuretic pills or laxatives. If you suffer from diabetes, or suffer from kidney problems do not take a potassium supplement without your doctors consent.

Potassium is found in a wide range of foods. Many fruits and vegetables are high in potassium and low in sodium and, as discussed, help prevent hypertension. Most of the potassium is lost when processing or canning foods, while less is lost from frozen fruits or vegetables. Leafy green vegetables such as spinach, parsley, and lettuce, as well as broccoli, peas, lima beans, tomatoes, and potatoes, especially the skins, all have significant levels of potassium. Fruits that contain this mineral include oranges and other citrus fruits, bananas, apples, avocados, raisins, and apricots, particularly dried. Whole grains, wheat germ, seeds, and nuts are high-potassium foods. Fish such as flounder, salmon, sardines, and cod are rich in potassium, and many meat foods contain even more potassium than sodium.

Selenium (Se)

Selenium (from the Greek word “selene” meaning “moon“) was discovered by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1817. He reported that tellurium was present in sulphuric acid from a Swedish factory, but in the following year decided that the impurity was not tellurium but another closely related element that he subsequently identified as selenium.

Selenium is essential to mammals and higher plants, but only in small amounts. Selenium is said to stimulate the metabolism. It may help protect against free radical oxidants and against some heavy metals. Livestock grown in areas containing high amounts of selenium in the soil and in which a plant called Astragalus (“loco weed” in USA) is present are poisoned. This is because Astragalus concentrates selenium. On the other hand, sheep grown in areas containing deficient amounts of selenium in the soil develop “white muscle disease.”

One of the main activities of this mineral is its anti-aging properties and its ability to help rid the body of free radicals, as well as toxic minerals such as mercury, lead and cadmium. It is helpful in fighting infections since it stimulates increased antibody response to infections, promotes more energy in the body, and while it helps with alleviating menopausal symptoms in women, it assists the male in producing healthy sperm.

In certain cases selenium has also proven effective in helping to fight cold sores and shingles, which are both caused by the herpes virus. Some researchers have shown that in selenium-deficient animals a harmless virus can mutate into a virulent form capable of causing damage and death – this has also been followed up with other studies, which seem to indicate that selenium helps to keep the spread and multiplying of viruses in check.

Selenium is also used against arthritis and multiple sclerosis and if provided in adequate amounts it is thought to help prevent cancer as well. Tissue elasticity and pancreatic function is also dependant on this mineral. In a study it was shown that selenium could be useful in treating certain cancers, and is also helpful in making the blood less “sticky”, which is helpful in preventing heart attacks and strokes.

Selenium, once classified as toxic, is now regarded as an essential mineral, needed in small daily amounts. Selenium functions as a component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, which accounts for its antioxidant function that protects cell membranes and intracellular structural membranes from lipid peroxidation.

Selenium and vitamin E work together synergistically in that they carry out antioxidant and immunostimulating functions better together than individually; however, their mechanisms of action are probably not the same. Both of these nutrients are part of the “anti-aging” or “longevity” group, which may be directly attributable to their antioxidant functions because tissue oxidation by free radicals may be the contributing factor to degenerative disease.

Because of selenium’s immunostimulating function, it’s very useful in the treatment of many immunosuppression diseases. With its antioxidant properties, selenium, especially along with vitamin E, may become a routine and powerful nutritional treatment in the medical world. Autoimmune diseases, recurrent illnesses or infections, and other inflammatory problems may be helped by restoring adequate selenium levels in the body. Selenium can help us prevent disease by increasing our resistance. In some cases, selenium promotes more rapid recovery from many basic disease processes. More controlled human studies related to specific illnesses will need to be done to generate greater acceptance by the medical establishment of selenium’s important role.

Despite its importance, there is less than 1 mg. of selenium in our body, most of it in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas and, in men, in the testes and seminal vesicles. Men have a greater need for selenium, which may function in sperm production and motility. Some selenium is lost through the sperm as well as through the urine and feces. It is absorbed fairly well from the intestines, with an absorption rate of nearly 60 percent.

Most selenium in foods is lost during processing, such as when making white rice or white flour. Selenium may be present in some drinking water, and it is sometimes even added to drinking water where it is deficient. Mother’s milk usually has several times more selenium than cow’s milk. Selenium is also used in some shampoos and skin lotions, and it is possible that we absorb small amounts of selenium from these products. Brewer’s yeast and wheat germ, both regarded as “health foods,” usually contain high concentrations of selenium. Animal sources such as liver, butter, most fish, and lamb have adequate amounts. Many vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and molasses are fairly good selenium foods. Brazil nuts have high amounts; barley, oats, whole wheat, and brown rice are also good sources; and shellfish such as scallops, lobster, shrimp, clams, crab, and oysters are all rich in selenium. Garlic and onions, mushroom, broccoli, tomatoes, radishes, and Swiss chard may be good selenium sources if the soil in which they are grown contains it.

Silicon (Si)

Jöns Jacob Berzelius is generally credited with the discovery of silicon in 1824. Deville prepared crystalline silicon in 1854, a second allotropic form of the element. The origin of the name is from the Latin word “silicis” meaning “flint.“

Silicon is not present in the body in large amounts, yet is found in virtually every type of tissue in the body. Do not confuse it with silicone. Silicon is also called silica and is a natural substance while silicone is a man-made industrial polymer used in breast enlargement operations.

Silicon is present in the sun and stars and is a principal component of a class of meteorites known as aerolites. Silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth’s crust by weight, and is the second most abundant element, exceeded only by oxygen. It is found largely as silicon oxides such as sand (silica), quartz, rock crystal, amethyst, agate, flint, jasper and opal. Silicon is found also in minerals such as asbestos, feldspar, clay and mica.

Silicon molecules in the tissues, such as the nails and connective tissue, give them strength and stability. Silicon is present in bone, blood vessels, cartilage, and tendons, helping to make them strong. Silicon is important to bone formation.

Silicon is important in plant and animal life. Diatoms in both fresh and salt water extract silica from the water to use as a component of their cell walls. Silicon is an important ingredient in steel. Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives. Workers in environments where silicaceous dust is breathed may develop a serious lung disease known as silicosis.

Silicon is used to keep bones, cartilage, tendons and artery walls healthy and may be beneficial in the treatment of allergies, heartburn and gum disease, as well as assisting the immune system. It is also required by the nails, hair and skin to stay in good condition and is useful in counteracting the effects of aluminum. Silicon levels drop as we age, and it might therefore be beneficial as an anti-aging component in our diets.

Other possible uses of silica or silicon that are under investigation are to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease, to treat arthritis and other joint or cartilage problems, gastric ulcers, and other conditions where tissue repair and healing are needed. Silicon is thought to help heal fractures and may have some role in the prevention or treatment of osteoporosis.

Silicon promotes firmness and strength in the tissues. It is part of the arteries, tendons, skin, connective tissue, and eyes. Collagen contains silicon, helping hold the body tissues together. This mineral is also present with the chondroitin sulfates of cartilage, and it works with calcium to help restore bones.

Silicon is widely available in food. It is part of plant fibers (though not of cellulose) and is found in high amounts in the hulls of wheat, oats, millet, barley, and rice, in sugar beet and cane pulp, in alfalfa, and in the herbs horsetail, comfrey, and nettles. Horsetail, Equisetum arvensa, is a common source used to make supplemental silica. Silicon is also present in lettuce, cucumbers, avocados, strawberries, onions, and dandelions and other dark greens. The pectin in citrus fruits and alginic acid in kelp also contain small amounts of silicon. Hard drinking water may also be a good source.

Sodium (Na)

Sodium, from the English word “soda” (the origin of the symbol “Na” comes from the Latin word “natrium“), was first isolated in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who made it by the electrolysis of very dry molten sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Sodium collected at the cathode. Davy isolated potassium by a similar procedure, also in 1807. Shortly after, Thenard and Gay-Lussac isolated sodium by reducing sodium hydroxide with iron metal at high temperatures.

Like the other alkali metals, sodium is a soft, light-weight, silvery white, reactive element that is never found unbound in nature. Sodium floats in water and decomposes it, releasing hydrogen and forming hydroxide. If ground to a fine enough power, sodium will ignite spontaneously in water. However, this metal does not normally ignite in air below 388 Kelvin.

Sodium is required by the body, but most people have a far too high intake of sodium (salt) in their diet. Sodium is an electrolyte in the body and is required in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, which protects the body from any infections that may be present in food.

Sodium is a vital element. The human diet must contain a sensible amount of sodium. The sodium cation is the main extracellular (outside cells) cation in animals and is important for nerve function in animals. The importance of sodium as salt in the diet was recognized well before sodium itself was understood to be an element. This recognition formed the basis of trading of salt deposits lining the Dead Sea in biblical times by the Romans. Prolonged sweating results in sodium ion loss in sweat and it is most important that the sodium ion is replaced through proper diet.

Sodium metal is a major fire risk. Sodium compounds are relatively harmless as long they are as not ingested in excess. This includes common salt, NaCl. People with heart diseases may need to ensure their diet does not contain too much sodium.

Excessive sodium may cause high blood pressure, which may lead to a host of health problems. Excessive long-term use of sodium may also cause a loss of calcium from your body.

WAYS TO DECREASE YOUR SODIUM INTAKE

Cook from scratch. De-emphasize the use of processed foods.
Use the salt shaker sparingly. Taste your food before adding salt. Remove the salt shaker from your table or get a shaker with smaller holes.
Choose fresh, frozen, or canned vegetables without added salt.
Choose fresh or frozen fish, shellfish, poultry, and meat more often than canned or processed forms.
Snack on fresh fruits and vegetables, which are low in sodium.
Balance a high sodium food with others of low sodium content. Limit processed, cured or pickled foods.
Read the Nutrition Facts Label to compare the amount of sodium in processed foods – such as frozen dinners, packaged mixes, cereals, cheese, breads, soups, salad dressings, and sauces. The amount of sodium in different types and brands often varies widely.
Ask your grocer or supermarket to offer more low-sodium foods.
Try to keep your daily sodium intake below 2500 mg.
Read food labels. Buy products low in sodium, MSG, baking soda and other sodium-containing compounds.
Choose foods labeled “low-sodium, ” “reduced sodium” or “sodium free.”
Take note of the sodium content of your favorite condiments, particularly meat tenderizer, steak sauce, soy sauce, salsa, and catsup.
Use alternate spices and herbs to season your food. Fresh vegetable and citrus juices work great too.
Some people can use salt substitutes. These are high in potassium so people with kidney or other medical problems may not be able to use them. Ask your physician first.
Try seasoning mixes such as Mrs. Dash or Mr. Pepper.
Choose nonprescription medications low in sodium. Ask your pharmacist about the sodium content of your prescription medication.
When you go out to eat, choose low sodium menu items and ask that they prepare your meal without salt or MSG. Use pepper instead of salt to season your meal.

Although a low sodium diet should be strived for, it is wise to start reading food labels to see the sodium level in these foods. Preserved and processed foods make excessive use of salt in the preparation of foods, and although you might not be adding extra salt to these products, they are already loaded with sodium.

Strontium (Sr)

Strontium is named after the village of “Strontian” in Scotland. Adair Crawford in 1790 recognized a new mineral (strontianite) in samples of witherite (a mineral consisting of barium carbonate, BaCO₃) from Scotland. It was some time before it was recognized that strontianite contained a new element. Strontianite is now known to consists of strontium carbonate, SrCO₃. The element itself was not isolated for a number of years after this when strontium metal was isolated by Davy by electrolysis of a mixture containing strontium chloride and mercuric oxide in 1808. Today, strontium is obtained from two of its most common ores, celestite (SrSO₄) and strontianite (SrCO₃), by treating them with hydrochloric acid, forming strontium chloride. The strontium chloride, usually mixed with potassium chloride (KCl), is then melted and electrolyzed, forming strontium and chlorine gas (Cl₂).

Strontium is a bright silvery metal that is softer than calcium and even more reactive in water; strontium will decompose on contact to produce strontium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. It burns in air to produce both a strontium oxide and strontium nitride, but since it does not react with nitrogen below 380ºC it will only form the oxide spontaneously at room temperature. It should be kept under kerosene to prevent oxidation; freshly exposed strontium metal rapidly turns a yellowish color with the formation of the oxide. Finely powdered strontium metal will ignite spontaneously in air. Volatile strontium salts impart a beautiful crimson color to flames, and these salts are used in pyrotechnics and in the production of flares. Natural strontium is a mixture of four stable isotopes.

In its pure form strontium is extremely reactive with air and spontaneously combusts. It is therefore considered to be a fire hazard. The human body absorbs strontium as if it were calcium. The stable forms of strontium do not pose a significant health threat, but the radioactive strontium-90 can lead to various bone disorders and diseases, including bone cancer. The strontium unit is used in measuring radioactivity from absorbed strontium-90.

Strontium-90 is a by-product of the fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear reactors, and in nuclear weapons. Strontium-90 is found in waste from nuclear reactors. It can also contaminate reactor parts and fluids. Large amounts of Sr-90 were produced during atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted in the 1950s and 1960s and dispersed worldwide.

Strontium-90 is used as a radioactive tracer in medical and agricultural studies. The heat generated by strontium-90’s radioactive decay can be converted to electricity for long-lived, light-weight power supplies. These are often used in remote locations, such as in navigational beacons, weather stations, and space vehicles. Strontium-90 is also used in electron tubes, as a radiation source in industrial thickness gauges, and for the treatment of eye diseases. Controlled amounts of strontium-90 have been used as a treatment for bone cancer.

Everyone is exposed to small amounts of strontium-90, since it is widely dispersed in the environment and the food chain. Dietary intake of Sr-90, however, has steadily fallen over the last 30 years with the suspension of nuclear weapons testing. People who live near or work in nuclear facilities may have increased exposure to Sr-90. The greatest concern would be the exposures from an accident at a nuclear reactor, or an accident involving high-level wastes. People may inhale trace amounts of strontium-90 as a contaminant in dust. But, swallowing Sr-90 with food or water is the primary pathway of intake.

When people ingest Sr-90, about 70-80% of it passes through the body. Virtually all of the remaining 20-30% that is absorbed is deposited in the bone. About 1% is distributed among the blood volume, extracellular fluid, soft tissue, and surface of the bone, where it may stay and decay or be excreted.

Strontium-90 is chemically similar to calcium, and tends to deposit in bone and blood-forming tissue (bone marrow). Thus, strontium-90 is referred to as a “bone seeker.” Internal exposure to Sr-90 is linked to bone cancer, cancer of the soft tissue near the bone, and leukemia. Risk of cancer increases with increased exposure to Sr-90. The risk depends on the concentration of Sr-90 in the environment, and on the exposure conditions.

Strontium-90 dispersed in the environment, like that from atmospheric weapons testing, is almost impossible to avoid. You may also be exposed to tiny amounts from nuclear power reactors and certain government facilities. The more serious risk to you (though it is unlikely), is that you may unwittingly encounter an industrial instrument containing a Sr-90 radiation source. This is more likely if you work in specific industries:

scrap metal sorting, sales and brokerage
metal melting and casting
municipal landfill operations.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur was known in ancient times and referred to in Genesis as brimstone. Its name is from the Sanskrit word “sulvere” meaning “sulphur“; also from the Latin word “sulphurium” meaning “sulphur.” The spelling of sulphur is “sulfur” in the USA. Assyrian texts dated around 700-600 BC refer to it as the “product of the riverside,” where deposits could be found. In the 9th century BC, Homer mentioned “pest-averting sulphur.” In 424 BC, the tribe of Bootier destroyed a city’s walls using a burning mixture of coal, sulphur, and tar. Around the 12th century, the Chinese, probably, discovered gun powder (a mixture of potassium nitrate, KNO3, carbon, and sulphur).

Sulfur, which is given a bad reputation because of its odor, can make a very beautiful mineral specimen, and fine quality examples are much sought after. The unmistakable deep yellow color is not matched by any other mineral and the nicely shaped crystal forms of sulfur add to its attractiveness. As for the odor, this occurs when water mixes with the sulfur and a small amount of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) gas is produced. Although only small amounts of H₂S form from just moisture in the air, it is a powerful odor producer and is the dominating contributor to the odor of rotten eggs. Rest assured, though, that most specimens of sulfur, when kept dry, do not emit a strong odor and this is not difficult for collectors of fine sulfur specimens to ensure.

Sulfur is a pale yellow, odourless, brittle solid, which is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide. sulfur is essential to life. It is a minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals. Carbon disulphide, hydrogen sulphide, and sulfur dioxide should be handled extremely carefully. Hydrogen sulphide in very small concentrations can be metabolized, but in higher concentrations it can cause death quickly by respiratory paralysis. It is insidious in that it quickly deadens the sense of smell. sulfur dioxide is a dangerous component in atmospheric air pollution and is one of the factors responsible for acid rain.

Sulfur, an acid-forming, non-metallic element, is not treated as an essential mineral, since there are no specific deficiency symptoms. It is the hydrogen sulfate in onions that causes us to weep when cutting or peeling them. It is found in the hair, nails and skin, and as much sulfur as potassium is normally found in the body. Sulfur is used to detoxify the body, assist the immune system and fight the effects of aging, as well as age related illnesses such as arthritis. Although sulfur might not be an essential mineral, it is an essential element of protein, biotin, as well as vitamin B1. It is part of the chemical structure of the amino acids methionine, cysteine, taurine and glutathione. It is further needed in the synthesis of collagen, which is needed for good skin integrity.

Sulfur is also present in two B vitamins, thiamine and biotin; interestingly, thiamine is important to skin and biotin to hair. Sulfur is also available as various sulfates or sulfides. But overall, sulfur is most important as part of protein.

Deficiencies will only really happen if a diet is deprived of protein, or a poorly planned vegan diet, and a protein shortage is more likely to happen than a sulfur deficiency. Sulfur is said to clean the blood and to help protect us against toxic build-up

Sulfur is normally found in protein foods, such as eggs, garlic, lettuce, cabbage and Brussels sprouts.

Zinc (Zn)

Centuries before zinc (German word “Zink“, of obscure origin) was recognized as a distinct element, zinc ores were used for making brass. Tubal-Cain, seven generations from Adam, is mentioned as being an “instructor in every artificer in brass and iron.” An alloy containing 87 percent zinc has been found in prehistoric ruins in Transylvania. Metallic zinc was produced in the 13th century A.D. in India by reducing calamine (zinc carbonate, ZnCO₃) with organic substances such as wool. The metal was rediscovered in Europe by Marggraf in 1746. He demonstrated that zinc could be obtained by reducing calamine with charcoal.

Zinc uses range from metal products to rubber and medicines. About three-fourths of zinc used is consumed as metal, mainly as a coating to protect iron and steel from corrosion (galvanized metal), as alloying metal to make bronze and brass, as zinc-based die casting alloy, and as rolled zinc. The remaining one-fourth is consumed as zinc compounds mainly by the rubber, chemical, paint, and agricultural industries. Zinc is also a necessary element for proper growth and development of humans, animals, and plants; it is the second most common trace metal, after iron, naturally found in the human body.

Zinc is an essential mineral that is found in almost every cell. It stimulates the activity of approximately 100 enzymes, which are substances that promote biochemical reactions in your body. Zinc supports a healthy immune system, is needed for wound healing, helps maintain your sense of taste and smell, and is needed for DNA synthesis. Zinc also supports normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence.

Zinc is needed in probably more than 100 enzymes and is probably involved in more body functions than any other mineral. It is important in normal growth and development, the maintenance of body tissues, sexual function, the immune system, and detoxification of chemicals and metabolic irritants.

Zinc is necessary for a healthy immune system, and is also of use in fighting skin problems such as acne, boils and sore throats. It is further needed for cell division, and is needed by the tissue of the hair, nails and skin to be in top form. Zinc is further used in the growth and maintenance of muscles. Children, for normal growth and sexual development also require zinc. It also seems as if zinc helps to control the oil glands, and is also required for the synthesis of protein and collagen which is great for wound healing and a healthy skin.

There is a shortage of zinc in many people’s diet, since zinc is destroyed in the milling process and is also lost in cooking. A deficiency will result in an under-performing immune system, open to infections, allergies, night blindness, loss of smell, falling hair, white spots under fingernails, skin problems, sleep disturbances, etc. Men with zinc shortage may have a problem with fertility, while women may experience irregular periods. Children with too little zinc may have stunted growth and slow sexual maturity. With too little in the body, the sense of smell might suffer, as well as your sense of taste.

Baldness, blepharitis, paronychia, rashes, sterility, low sperm count, delayed wound healing, splenomegaly, glossitis, stomatitis are more signs. Impaired cell growth and repair, with effects most profound on fetuses and children. Deficiency in Zinc may slow natural growth of fetus and make newborns grow more slowly. Other effects are poor wound healing, reduced sense of taste and smell, white spots on fingernails, mental dullness and difficulty in concentration, hair loss, decrease in red blood cells and white blood cells, making people more susceptible to infections. Zinc is likely to be lacking in teenage diets. Drinkers absorb zinc at reduced rate leading to low sperm count, atrophy of the testicles. Some people with cancer of esophagus, bronchial tubes, prostate have low levels of zinc. High doses of zinc can decrease HDL levels in young males.

Zinc metal is a human skin irritant and is a severe fire hazard but otherwise is non-toxic. Most common zinc compounds are not very toxic but a few zinc salts may be carcinogens. Use of some zinc compounds is permitted around food. Pollution from industrial smoke may cause lung disease.

Men should always ensure enough zinc in their diets, since the health of their prostate gland is linked to zinc. Zinc is needed to manufacture testosterone and a shortage may induce a low sperm count, loss of libido and other emotional problems. Zinc may also be helpful in fighting infection and inflammation of the prostate gland in older men. It is lost on ejaculation, since sperm needs this mineral to swim towards the egg. If a woman is taking birth control pills, or receiving hormone replacement therapy, extra zinc may be indicated. All vegans and vegetarians, pregnant or lactating women, as well as people suffering from psoriasis should also consider their zinc intake. People consuming large amounts of alcohol may also be at risk of lowered zinc levels.

Elevated intake of zinc (1-2 gram per day) over an extended period can actually harm your immune system instead of assisting it. Intake of zinc should be kept to under 100 mg per day as larger amounts may result in nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, drowsiness and hallucinations. If you wish to take a zinc supplement, take it at night on an empty stomach, as zinc can interfere with the absorption of other minerals such as copper and iron. In a multi-vitamin situation, make sure that the zinc and iron are nearly in the same amounts. Large intakes of zinc can cause nausea and diarrhea.

Zinc is found in a wide variety of foods. Oysters contain more zinc per serving than any other food, but red meat and poultry provide the majority of zinc in the American diet. Other good food sources include beans, nuts, certain seafood, whole grains, fortified breakfast cereals, and dairy products. Zinc absorption is greater from a diet high in animal protein than a diet rich in plant proteins. Phytates, which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, can decrease zinc absorption.

PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Alanine

Alanine is a nonessential amino acid used by the body to build proteins. Alanine is present in prostate fluid, and it may play a role in supporting prostate health. One study, involving 45 men with benign prostatic hyperplasia, found that 780 mg of alanine per day for two weeks and then 390 mg for the next two and a half months, taken in combination with equal amounts of the amino acids glycine and glutamic acid, reduced symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia; this work has been independently confirmed.

The amino acid alanine can be synthesized by humans, making it nonessential. Its presence in the diet, however, may facilitate optimal protein synthesis. Alanine is a major constituent of proteins, where the methyl side chain plays a space filling role, usually within the interior regions. Free alanine can transfer an amino group and become pyruvate, which is a key metabolic intermediate. It can be burned for energy or converted into fat, glucose, or glycogen.

Since alanine is synthesized in the body and is also provided by most foods that are sources of protein, deficiencies are unlikely to occur.

Alanine is free of side effects for the vast majority of people who take it; however, people with kidney or liver disease should not consume high intakes of amino acids without consulting a healthcare professional.

As with the other amino acids, excellent sources of alanine include meat and poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products. Some protein-rich plant foods also supply alanine.

*Arginine***

The amino acid arginine can be synthesized by humans, making it nonessential. Its presence in the diet, however, may facilitate optimal protein synthesis. Most of the arginine is incorporated into proteins, but the free amino acid has several important functions. It is an intermediate in the metabolic cycle that leads to urea being excreted in urine.

The effect of arginine on growth hormone levels has interested body builders. In a controlled trial, when arginine and ornithine (500 mg of each, twice per day, five times per week) were combined with weight training, a greater decrease in body fat was obtained after only five weeks, than when the same exercise was combined with a placebo. In another study, however, 5 grams of arginine powder, taken orally 30 minutes prior to exercise, failed to affect growth hormone release and may have even impaired the release of growth hormone in younger adults.

Arginine is also needed to increase protein synthesis, which can in turn increase cellular replication. Therefore, arginine may help people with inadequate numbers of certain cells. For example, some, though not all, studies have found that men with low sperm counts experienced an increase in the number of sperm when they supplemented with arginine.

Arginine is also a precursor to nitric oxide, which the body uses to keep blood vessels dilated, allowing the heart to receive adequate oxygen. Researchers have begun to use arginine in people with angina and congestive heart failure.

Nitric oxide metabolism is also altered in people with interstitial cystitis, a condition of the bladder. Preliminary research found that supplementation with 1.5 grams of arginine per day for six months led to a significant decrease in most symptoms, including pain, though short-term supplementation (five weeks) has not been effective, even at higher (3–10 grams per day) intakes. In 1999, a double-blind study using 1.5 grams of arginine for three months in a group of women with interstitial cystitis, reported considerable improvement compared with the effect of a placebo in a variety of indices. Perhaps due to the small size of the study, some of these changes did not quite reach statistical significance.

Preliminary evidence suggests that arginine may help regulate cholesterol levels. Arginine also appears to act as a natural blood thinner by reducing platelet aggregation.

Normally, the body makes enough arginine, even when it is lacking in the diet. However, during times of unusual stress (including infection, burns, and injury), the body may not be able to keep up with increased requirements.

Arginine has so far appeared to be free of obvious side effects. However, longer-term studies are needed to confirm its safety.

People with kidney or liver disease should consult their doctor before supplementing with arginine. Some doctors believe that people with herpes (either cold sores or genital herpes) should not take arginine supplements, because of the possibility that arginine might stimulate replication of the virus.

Administration of large amounts of arginine to animals has been found both to promote and to interfere with cancer growth. In preliminary research, high intake (30 grams per day) of arginine has increased cancer cell growth in humans. On the other hand, in people with cancer, arginine has been found to stimulate the immune system. At this time it remains unclear whether arginine is dangerous or helpful for people with cancer.

Arginine works with ornithine in the synthesis of growth hormone.

Dairy, meat and poultry, and fish are good sources of arginine. Nuts and chocolate also contain significant amounts of this amino acid.

Asparagine

Asparagine, the beta-amido derivative of aspartic acid, is considered a non-essential amino acid. This amino acid plays an important role in the biosynthesis of glycoproteins and is also essential to the synthesis of a large number of other proteins. On a per-mole basis, asparagine is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at a rate of 4.4 percent with respect to the other amino acids.

Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid that the body can manufacture in the liver. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein.

There are no known signs of deficiency from asparagine.

Aspartic Acid

Aspartic acid is a naturally occurring nonessential amino acid, common form L(+)-aspartic acid. It is used as a dietary supplement, detergent, fungicide, germicide synthetic sweetener base. Combines with other amino acids to form compounds that absorb and remove toxins from the bloodstream.

Aspartic acid is one of two amino acids (the other is glutamic acid) that has a negatively charged carboxylate group on the side chain. This gives aspartic acid an overall negative charge at physiological hydrogen ion concentrations (approximately pH 7.3). Although aspartic acid is considered a non-essential amino acid, it plays a paramount role in metabolism during construction of other amino acids and biochemicals in the citric acid cycle. Among the biochemicals that are synthesized from aspartic acid are asparagine, arginine, lysine, methionine, threonine, isoleucine, and several nucleotides.

The amino acid aspartic acid can be synthesized by humans, making it nonessential. Its presence in the diet, however, may facilitate optimal protein synthesis. The side chain of aspartic acid, like that of glutamic acid, contains a carboxyl group. At neutral (pH), free aspartic acid exists as aspartate. Within the brain, aspartate seems to interact with some of the glutamate receptors. Most of the aspartic acid in our bodies is incorporated into proteins, where its side chain often interacts with water or other polar groups. At neutral pH, the carboxyl side chain can contribute negative charge to the surface of proteins, facilitating binding to positively charged areas on other proteins or membranes.

There are no known signs of deficiency from aspartic acid. However, signs of toxicity may cause brain damage.

Citruline

Citrulline is a non-essential amino acid that the body can manufacture in the liver. It is synthesized in the body from ornithine by the addition of CO2 and ammonia and is a precursor of arginine. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein.

Citrulline exists primarily in the liver, where it is heavily involved in the urea cycle to detoxify and excrete ammonia. This unusual amino acid is formed in the urea cycle by the addition of carbon dioxide and ammonia to ornithine. Next, it is combined with aspartic acid to form arginosuccinic acid, which later is metabolized into the amino acid arginine. Citrulline is not a component of any major proteins or enzymes.

Cystine

Cystine is a nonessential amino acid (protein building block), meaning that cystine can be made in the human body. Cystine is one of the few amino acids that contains sulfur. This allows cystine to bond in a special way and maintain the structure of proteins in the body. Cystine is a component of the antioxidant, glutathione. The body also uses cystine to produce taurine, another amino acid.

Cystine can also be converted into glucose and used as a source of energy. Cystine strengthens the protective lining of the stomach and intestines, which may help prevent damage caused by aspirin and similar drugs. In addition, cystine may play an important role in the communication between immune system cells. Cystine is rarely used as a dietary supplement. N-acetyl cystine (NAC), which contains cystine, is more commonly used as a supplement.

Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. Cystine is an important part of GTF (glucose tolerance factor). Cystine or cysteine is required for the proper utilization of vitamin B6. Cystine assists in the supply of insulin to the pancreas.

It functions as an antioxidant and is a powerful aid to the body in protecting against radiation and pollution. It can help slow down the aging process, deactivate free radicals, neutralize toxins. It aids in protein synthesis and presents cellular change. It is necessary for the formation of the skin, which aids in the recovery from burns and surgical operations. Hair and skin are made up 10-14% Cystine.

According to several studies, blood levels of cystine and glutathione are low in people infected with HIV. Cystine has a role in the proper function of the immune system, so a deficiency of this amino acid may either contribute to, or result from, immune suppression associated with HIV.

No consistent adverse effects of NAC have been reported in humans. One small study found that daily amounts of 1.2 grams or more could lead to oxidative damage. Extremely large amounts of cystine, the amino acid NAC is derived from, may be toxic to nerve cells in rats.

Adequate amounts of methionine are needed in the diet, as the precursor to cystine, to prevent cystine deficiency.

The body can synthesize cystine from methionine and other building blocks. Cystine, the amino acid from which NAC is derived, is found in most high-protein foods.

Glutamic Acid

Glutamic acid (glutamate) is an amino acid used by the body to build proteins. Under normal circumstances, humans are able to meet bodily glutamate requirements either from the diet or by making it from precursor molecules. Glutamate is the most common excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Although glutamine and glutamic acid have similar names, they are structurally different.

The fluid produced by the prostate gland contains significant amounts of glutamic acid, and this amino acid may play a role in normal function of the prostate. In one study, symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) were improved in a group of 45 men taking 780 mg of glutamic acid per day for two weeks and then 390 mg for the next two and a half months in combination with equal amounts of the amino acids, alanine and glycine, an effect also reported by other researchers.

Glutamic acid may have protective effects on the heart muscle in people with heart disease. Intravenous injections of glutamic acid (as monosodium glutamate) have been shown to increase exercise tolerance and heart function in people with stable angina pectoris.

The amino acid glutamic acid can be synthesized by humans, making it nonessential. Its presence in the diet, however, may facilitate optimal protein synthesis. The side chain of glutamic acid, like that of aspartic acid, contains a carboxyl group. Most of the glutamic acid in our bodies is incorporated into proteins, where its side chain often interacts with water or other polar group. At neutral pH (see acids), the carboxyl side chain can contribute negative charge to the surface of proteins, facilitating binding to positively charged areas on other proteins or membranes.

Glutamic acid is biosynthesized from a number of amino acids including ornithine and arginine. When aminated, glutamic acid forms the important amino acid glutamine. Because it has a carboxylic acid moiety on the side chain, glutamic acid is one of only two amino acids (the other being aspartic acid) that has a net negative charge at physiological pH. This negative charge makes glutamic acid a very polar molecule and it is usually found on the outside of proteins and enzymes where it is free to interact with the aqueous intracellular surroundings. On a molar basis, glutamic acid is incorporated into proteins at a rate of 6.2 percent compared to the other amino acids.

Most food sources of protein supply glutamic acid, so only a person deficient in protein would become deficient in glutamic acid.

Glutamic acid is generally free of side effects for the vast majority of people who take it; however, people with kidney or liver disease should not consume high intakes of amino acids without consulting a healthcare professional. Because over stimulation of glutamate receptors is thought to be a possible cause of certain neurological diseases (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [Lou Gehrig’s disease] and epilepsy), people with a neurological disease should consult of physician before supplementing with glutamate.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG), the form of glutamic acid that is used as a flavor enhancer, has been reported in anecdotal studies to have a number of different adverse effects (including headache, fatigue, and depression). However, controlled trials have failed to confirm that MSG causes these side effects, and the safety of this compound remains controversial.

Sources of glutamic acid include high-protein foods, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products. Some protein-rich plant foods also supply glutamic acid.

Glutamine

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid (protein building block) in the body and is involved in more metabolic processes than any other amino acid. Glutamine is converted to glucose when more glucose is required by the body as an energy source. It serves as a source of fuel for cells lining the intestines. Without it, these cells waste away. It is also used by white blood cells and is important for immune function. In animal research, glutamine has anti-inflammatory effects. Glutamine in combination with N-acetyl cysteine promotes the synthesis of glutathione, a naturally occurring antioxidant that is believed to be protective in people with HIV infection. Evidence indicates that intravenous glutamine supplementation increases the survival rate of critically ill people.

Glutamine is one of the twenty amino acids generally present in animal proteins. A monoamide of glutamic acid, the biochemical is also a component of many plants and was first isolated from beet juice in 1883. Glutamine was not isolated as a component from a protein, however, until 1932 and was first chemically produced the following year. The substance plays an important role in the cellular metabolism of animals and is the only amino acid with the ability to easily cross the barrier between blood and brain tissue. Combined, glutamine and glutamic acid are responsible for the vast majority of the amino nitrogen located in the brain, and are of central importance in the regulation of bodily ammonia levels. Though it is readily synthesized naturally within the body, glutamine is popularly sold as a nutritional supplement for athletes.

Glutamine is a nonessential amino acid. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. Glutamine is essential for DNA synthesis, cellular energy, growth and repair. It is used by white blood cells to support the immune system.

Few healthy people are glutamine deficient, in part because the body makes its own. During fasting, starvation, cirrhosis, critical illnesses in general, and weight loss associated with AIDS and cancer, however, deficiencies often develop.

No significant side effects have been reported in glutamine studies.

Glutamine is found in many foods high in protein, such as fish, meat, beans, and dairy products.

Glutathione

Glutathione is actually a tripeptide made up the amino acids gamma-glutamic acid, cysteine, and glycine. The primary biological function of glutathione is to act as a non-enzymatic reducing agent to help keep cysteine thiol side chains in a reduced state on the surface of proteins. Glutathione is also used to prevent oxidative stress in most cells and helps to trap free radicals that can damage DNA and RNA. There is a direct correlation with the speed of aging and the reduction of glutathione concentrations in intracellular fluids. As individuals grow older, glutathione levels drop, and the ability to detoxify free radicals decreases.

Glutathione is a small molecule found in almost every cell. It cannot enter most cells directly and therefore must be made inside the cell, from its three constituent amino acids: glycine, glutamate and cysteine. The rate at which glutathione can be made depends on the availability of cysteine, which is relatively scarce in foodstuffs.

Glutathione is the major antioxidant produced by the cell, protecting it from ‘free radicals’ (‘oxygen radicals’, ‘oxyradicals’). These highly reactive substances, if left unchecked, will damage or destroy key cell components (e.g. membranes, DNA) in microseconds. Glutathione recycles other well-known antioxidants such as vitamin C and vitamin E, keeping them in their active state.

Glutathione is a very important detoxifying agent, enabling the body to get rid of undesirable toxins and pollutants. It forms a soluble compound with the toxin that can then be excreted through the urine or the gut.

Glutathione plays a crucial role in maintaining a normal balance between oxidation and anti-oxidation.

Glutathione is required in many of the intricate steps needed to carry out an immune response. For example, it is needed for the lymphocytes to multiply in order to develop a strong immune response, and for ‘killer’ lymphocytes to be able to kill undesirable cells such as cancer cells or virally infected cells.

Glutathione values decline with age and higher values in older people are seen to correlate with better health, underscoring the importance of this remarkable substance for maintaining a healthy, well-functioning body.

Dietary glutathione is found in fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables, fish, and meat. Asparagus, avocado, and walnuts are particularly rich dietary sources of glutathione.

Glycine

Glycine is the simplest amino acid and is the only amino acid that is not optically active (it has no stereoisomers). This amino acid is essential for the biosynthesis of nucleic acids as well as of bile acids, porphyrins, creatine phosphate, and other amino acids. On a molar basis, glycine is the second most common amino acid found in proteins and enzymes being incorporated at the rate of 7.5 percent compared to the other amino acids. Glycine is also similar to gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamic acid in the ability to inhibit neurotransmitter signals in the central nervous system.

Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. Glycine is an important part of GTF (glucose tolerance factor). The prostate gland produces fluid that contains glycine and researchers think that it may have a positive influence on normal prostate function.

Glycine is a nonessential amino acid used by the body to build proteins. It is present in considerable amounts in prostate fluid. Glycine may play a role in maintaining the health of the prostate, since a study of 45 men with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) found that 780 mg of glycine per day for two weeks and then 390 mg for the next two and a half months, taken in combination with equal amounts of the amino acids, alanine and glutamic acid, reduced symptoms of the condition. This effect has been reported by others. Glycine also enhances the activity of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain that are involved in memory and cognition.

Healthy people do not need to supplement with glycine. A physician should be consulted before supplemental glycine is used for the support of serious health conditions.

Glycine is found in many foods high in protein, such as fish, meat, beans, and dairy.

Histidine

Histidine is called a semi-essential amino acid (protein building block) because adults generally produce adequate amounts but children may not. Histidine is also a precursor of histamine, a compound released by immune system cells during an allergic reaction.

Histidine is one of the basic (with reference to pH) amino acids due to its aromatic nitrogen-heterocyclic imidazole side chain. This amino acid is biochemically metabolized into the neurotransmitter histamine and the set of genes that produce the enzymes responsible for histidine biosynthesis are controlled by the well-studied histidine operon. The disruption of histidine biosynthesis in bacteria is the basis for the famous Ames test, used to determine the mutagenability of various chemicals. Histidine is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at a molar percentage of 2.1 compared to the other amino acids.

The amino acid histidine (His) is required to make enzymes and other proteins. It is the most recently recognized essential amino acid. Some is synthesized internally, but not in adequate amounts, at least for infants. An important derivative is histamine which plays many roles, including neurotransmitter, stimulant of gastric secretion, vasodilator, and blood pressure regulator.

According to limited research, many people with rheumatoid arthritis have low levels of histidine. Taking histidine supplements might improve arthritis symptoms in some people.

No side effects have been reported with histidine. However, people with kidney or liver disease should not consume large amounts of amino acids without consulting a healthcare professional. Large doses of histidine can cause premature ejaculation, reduce levels of zinc and possibly trigger an allergic or asthmatic reaction (due to increases in histamine).

Dairy, meat and poultry, and fish are good sources of histidine.

Hydroxyproline

Hydroxyproline is nonessential amino acid, a precursor of proline which is needed for collagen production. Vulnerary.

Hydroxyproline is derived from the amino acid proline and is used almost exclusively in structural proteins including collagen, connective tissue in mammals, and in plant cell walls. An unusual feature of this amino acid is that it is not incorporated into collagen during biosynthesis at the ribosome, but is formed from proline by a post-translational modification by an enzymatic hydroxylation reaction. Non-hydroxylated collagen is commonly termed pro-collagen.

Hydroxyproline is produced by hydroxylation of the amino acid proline. Proline hydroxylation requires ascorbic acid. Most effects of absence of ascorbic acid in man come from the resulting defect in hydroxylation of proline residues of collagen, with reduced stability of the collagen molecule.

It was first isolated in 1902 from gelatin. Excretion of abnormal quantities of hydroxyproline is a symptom of the connective-tissue disease called Marfan’s syndrome.

Isoleucine

The branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. BCAAs are considered essential amino acids, because human beings cannot survive unless these amino acids are present in the diet. BCAAs are needed for the maintenance of muscle tissue and appear to preserve muscle stores of glycogen (a storage form of carbohydrate that can be converted into energy). BCAAs also help prevent muscle protein breakdown during exercise.

Some research has shown that BCAA supplementation (typically 10–20 grams per day) does not result in meaningful changes in body composition, nor does it improve exercise performance or enhance the effects of physical training. However, BCAA supplementation may be useful in special situations, such as preventing muscle loss at high altitudes and prolonging endurance performance in the heat. Studies by one group of researchers suggest that BCAA supplementation may also improve exercise-induced declines in some aspects of mental functioning.

BCAAs can active glutamate dehydrogenase—an enzyme that is deficient in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig’s disease. In one double-blind trial, 26 grams per day of BCAA supplements helped those with ALS maintain muscle strength. However, a larger study was ended early when people using BCAAs not only failed to improve, but experienced higher death rates than the placebo group. Other studies have shown no benefit of BCAA supplementation for ALS or other neuromuscular diseases, though a small group of people suffering from diseases of the nervous system collectively called spinocerebellar degeneration did improve when given BCAAs in a preliminary study.

One study investigating the advantages of BCAA supplementation for people with diabetes undergoing an intense exercise program found no additional benefit of BCAAs on reducing abdominal fat or improving glucose metabolism.

Patients with liver diseases that lead to coma—called hepatic encephalopathy—have low concentrations of BCAAs and excess levels of certain other amino acids. Preliminary research suggested that people with this condition might be helped by BCAAs. Double-blind studies have produced somewhat inconsistent results, but a re-analysis of these studies found an overall benefit for the symptoms of encephalopathy. Therapeutic effects of BCAAs have also been shown in children with liver failure and adults with cirrhosis of the liver. Any treatment of people with liver failure requires the direction of a physician.

People with chronic kidney failure may also benefit from BCAA supplementation. A preliminary study found improved breathing and sleep quality in people given intravenous BCAAs during kidney dialysis.

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease that causes abnormally high amounts of phenylalanine and its end products to accumulate in the blood, causing damage to the nervous system. A controlled trial demonstrated that regular use of BCAAs by adolescents and young adults with PKU, improved performance on some tests of mental functioning. This outcome makes sense because BCAAs may compete with phenylalanine, reducing its toxic effects.

In tardive dyskinesia, phenylalanine levels have also been reported to be elevated. As a result, one group of researchers gave tardive dyskinesia patients BCAAs (from 150 mg per 2.2 pounds body weight, up to 209 mg per 2.2 pounds body weight) after breakfast, and one hour before lunch and dinner for two weeks. The BCAA mixture included equal parts valine and isoleucine plus 33% more leucine than either of the other two amino acids. Of nine patients so treated, six had at least a 58% decrease in symptoms, and all people in the study had a decrease of at least 38% in symptoms.

Only a person deficient in protein would become deficient in BCAAs, because most foods that are sources of protein, supply BCAAs. Few people in Western societies are protein deficient.

Side effects have not been reported with the use of BCAAs. Until more research is conducted, people with ALS should avoid taking supplemental BCAAs. At high intakes, BCAAs are simply converted into other amino acids, used as energy, or converted to fat for storage. However, people with kidney or liver disease should not consume high amounts of amino acids without consulting their doctor.

Dairy products and red meat contain the greatest amounts of BCAAs, although they are present in all protein-containing foods. Whey protein and egg protein supplements are other sources of BCAAs. BCAA supplements provide the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

Leucine

Leucine, like its cousins isoleucine and valine, is a hydrophobic amino acid that is found as a structural element on the interior of proteins and enzymes. There appears to be no other significant metabolic role for these amino acids, but they are essential and because they are not synthesized by mammalian tissues, must be taken in the diet. Leucine ties glycine for the position of second most common amino acid found in proteins with a concentration of 7.5 percent on a molar basis compared to the other amino acids.

Leucine is an essential amino acid. Only the L form of amino acids are constituents of protein. Leucine is essential for growth, stimulates the production of muscle tissue, and protects the liver from the damaging affects of alcohol.

Leucine helps with the regulation of blood-sugar levels, the growth and repair of muscle tissue (such as bones, skin and muscles), growth hormone production, wound healing as well as energy regulation. It can assist to prevent the breakdown of muscle proteins that sometimes occur after trauma or severe stress. It may also be beneficial for individuals with phenylketonuria – a condition in which the body cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine.

Deficiency of this nutrient is rare, since all protein foods contain it, but vegans and vegetarians without adequate protein sources may suffer from a deficiency. Hypoglycemia symptoms may appear if the diet is deficient and may include dizziness, fatigue, headaches, irritability, etc.

A high intake of leucine could contribute to pellagra as well as increase the amount of ammonia present in the body.

If you are taking a supplement of leucine, keep it in balance with the other two branched-chain amino-acids isoleucine and valine in the formula of 2 mg of leucine and valine for each 1 mg of isoleucine.

Leucine is found in protein foods, as well as brown rice, beans, nuts and whole wheat.

Lysine

Lysine is an essential amino acid and is a basic building block of all protein. This nutrient was first isolated in 1889 from casein. Lysine has a net positive charge at physiological pH values, making it one of the three basic (with respect to charge) amino acids. This polar amino acid is commonly found on the surfaces of proteins and enzymes, and sometimes appears in the active site. Lysine is incorporated into proteins at the rate of 7 percent on a molar basis compared to the other amino acids.

Lysine is heat sensitive and is not present in processed foods. It helps regulate the pineal gland, mammary glands, and ovaries. Lysine is important for growth and bone development, promotes calcium absorption, maintains nitrogen balances, ability to fight viral infections such as the herpes simplex virus, aids in the production of antibodies, hormones and collagen, and helps to build muscle tissue.

It is required for growth and bone development in children, assists in calcium absorption and maintaining the correct nitrogen balance in the body and maintaining lean body mass. Furthermore it is needed to produce antibodies, hormones, enzymes, collagen formation as well as repair of tissue.

Since it helps with the building of muscle protein, it is useful for patients recovering from injuries and recovery after operations, and there might be use in lysine to help maintain healthy blood vessels. It also seems to assist in fighting herpes and cold sores.

Although a deficiency of lysine is rare, since it is found in so many protein foods, the symptoms may include anemia, enzyme disorders, lack of energy, hair loss, bloodshot eyes, weight loss and retarded growth as well as reproductive problems, poor appetite and poor concentration.

People on a vegan or vegetarian diet, using grains as their only source of protein are often deficient in this nutrient.

Toxicity has not been determined but animals fed high amounts of lysine have shown a tendency to gallstones as well as elevated cholesterol. These tendencies have not been proven in humans. Diarrhea and stomach cramps may be indicative in high dosage, but these are not consistent symptoms.

Good sources of lysine are found in cheese, eggs, lime beans, potatoes, milk, meat and brewer’s yeast.

Methionine

Methionine is one of the essential amino acids (building blocks of protein), meaning that it cannot be produced by the body, and must be provided by the diet. It supplies sulfur and other compounds required by the body for normal metabolism and growth. Methionine also belongs to a group of compounds called lipotropics, or chemicals that help the liver process fats (lipids). Others in this group include choline, inositol, and betaine (trimethylglycine).

People with AIDS have low levels of methionine. Some researchers suggest this may explain some aspects of the disease process, especially the deterioration that occurs in the nervous system that can cause symptoms, including dementia. A preliminary study has suggested that methionine (6 grams per day) may improve memory recall in people with AIDS-related nervous system degeneration.

Other preliminary studies have suggested that methionine (5 grams per day) may help treat some symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. However, another form of methionine, S-adenosylmethionine, or SAMe, may worsen the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and should be avoided until more is known.

Methionine (2 grams per day) in combination with several antioxidants, reduced pain and recurrences of attacks of pancreatitis in a small but well-controlled trial.

Most people consume plenty of methionine through a typical diet. Lower intakes during pregnancy have been associated with neural tube defects in newborns, but the significance of this is not yet clear.

Animal studies suggest that diets high in methionine, in the presence of B-vitamin deficiencies, may increase the risk for atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) by increasing blood levels of cholesterol and a compound called homocysteine. This idea has not yet been tested in humans. Excessive methionine intake, together with inadequate intake of folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, can increase the conversion of methionine to homocysteine—a substance linked to heart disease and stroke. Even in the absence of a deficiency of folic acid, B6, or B12, megadoses of methionine (7 grams per day) have been found to cause elevations in blood levels of homocysteine. Whether such an increase would create a significant hazard for humans taking supplemental methionine has not been established. Supplementation of up to 2 grams of methionine daily for long periods of time has not been reported to cause any serious side effects.

Meat, fish, and dairy products are all good sources of methionine. Vegetarians can obtain methionine from whole grains, but beans are a relatively poor source of this amino acid.

Ornithine

Ornithine is a nonessential amino acid and is manufactured by the body. The amino acid, arginine, is metabolized during urea production and is required by the body as it acts as a precursor of citrulline, proline and glutamic acid.

Ornithine plays an important role in the urea cycle and is the precursor of the amino acids citrulline, glutamic acid, and proline. Another primary role of ornithine is being an intermediate in arginine biosynthesis, although this is due to its participation in the urea cycle (responsible for the production of urea). Ornithine is not directly incorporated into proteins and enzymes and does not have a codon in the genetic code.

Animal research has suggested that ornithine, along with arginine, may promote muscle-building activity in the body by increasing levels of growth-promoting (anabolic) hormones such as insulin and growth hormone. However, most human research does not support these claims at reasonable intake levels. One study that did demonstrate increased growth hormone with oral ornithine used very high amounts (an average of 13 grams per day) and reported many gastrointestinal side effects. One controlled study reported greater increases in lean body mass and strength after five weeks of intensive strength training in athletes taking 1 gram per day each of arginine and ornithine, compared with a group doing the exercise but taking a placebo. These findings require independent confirmation.

In clinical studies on people hospitalized for surgery, generalized infections, cancer, trauma, or burns, supplementation with ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate (OKG) has been reported to produce several beneficial effects. A double-blind trial evaluated the effects of OKG supplementation in elderly people recovering from acute illnesses. Those who took 10 grams of OKG per day for two months had marked improvement in appetite, weight gain, and quality of life compared with those taking the placebo. They also had shorter recovery periods and required fewer home visits by physicians and nurses and needed fewer medications.

Ornithine aspartate has been shown to be beneficial in people with brain abnormalities (hepatic encephalopathy) due to liver cirrhosis. In a double-blind trial, people with cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy received either 18 grams per day of L-ornithine-L-aspartate or a placebo for two weeks. Those taking the ornithine had significant improvements in liver function and blood tests compared with those taking the placebo.

Preliminary and controlled studies of people with severe burns showed that supplementation with 10–30 grams of ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate per day significantly improved wound healing and decreased the length of hospital stays.

Since ornithine is produced by the body, a deficiency of this nonessential amino acid is unlikely, though depletion can occur during growth or pregnancy, and after severe trauma or malnutrition.

No side effects have been reported with the use of ornithine, except for gastrointestinal distress with intakes over 10 grams per day. The presence of arginine is needed to produce ornithine in the body, so higher levels of this amino acid should increase ornithine production.

Ornithine is predominantly found in meat, fish, dairy, and eggs. Western diets typically provide 5 grams per day. The body also produces ornithine

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid that is also one of the aromatic amino acids that exhibit ultraviolet radiation absorption properties with a large extinction coefficient. This characteristic is often used as an analytical tool to quantify the amount of protein in a sample. Phenylalanine plays a key role in the biosynthesis of other amino acids and some neurotransmitters. It is the most commonly found aromatic amino acid in proteins and enzymes with a molar ratio of 3.5 percent compared to the other amino acids, about double the amount of any other aromatic amino acid.

L-phenylalanine (LPA) serves as a building block for the various proteins that are produced in the body. LPA can be converted to L-tyrosine (another amino acid) and subsequently to L-dopa, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. LPA can also be converted (through a separate pathway) to phenylethylamine, a substance that occurs naturally in the brain and appears to elevate mood.

D-phenylalanine (DPA) is not normally found in the body and cannot be converted to L-tyrosine, L-dopa, or norepinephrine. As a result, DPA is converted primarily to phenylethylamine (the potential mood elevator). DPA also appears to influence certain chemicals in the brain that relate to pain sensation.

DLPA is a mixture of LPA and its mirror image DPA. DLPA (or the D- or L-form alone) has been used to treat depression. DPA may be helpful for some people with Parkinson’s disease and has been used to treat chronic pain—including pain from osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis—with both positive and negative results. No research has evaluated the effectiveness of DLPA on rheumatoid arthritis.

People whose diets are very low in protein may develop a deficiency of LPA, although this is believed to be very uncommon. However, one does not necessarily have to be deficient in LPA in order to benefit from a DLPA supplement.

The maximum amount of DLPA that is safe is unknown. However, consistent toxicity in healthy people has not been reported with 1,500 mg per day or less of DLPA, except for occasional nausea, heartburn, or transient headaches.

When 100 mg of LPA per 2.2 pounds body weight or more was given to animals, a variety of complex problems occurred, leading two researchers to have concerns about potential toxicity of high amounts in humans. While these concerns were directed at LPA specifically, they are likely to be equally applicable to DLPA. Although no serious adverse effects have been reported in humans taking phenylalanine, amounts greater than 1,500 mg per day should be supervised by a doctor.

People with phenylketonuria must not supplement with phenylalanine.

LPA is found in most foods that contain protein. DPA does not normally occur in food. However, when phenylalanine is synthesized in the laboratory, half appears in the L-form and the other half in the D-form. These two compounds can also be synthesized individually, but it is more expensive to do so. The combination supplement (DLPA) is often used because of the lower cost and because both components exert different health-enhancing effects.

Proline

Proline was first isolated from casein in 1901, and unlike any of the other amino acids it is readily soluble in alcohol. It is a nonessential amino acid and can be synthesized from glutamic acid and does not require dietary sources.

Proline is one of the cyclic aliphatic amino acids that is a major component of the protein collagen, the connective tissue structure that binds and supports all other tissues. Proline is synthesized from glutamic acid prior to its incorporation into pro-collagen during messenger RNA translation. After the pro-collagen protein is synthesized, it is converted by post-translational modification into hydroxyproline. On a molar basis proline is incorporated into protein at a rate of 4.2 percent with respect to other amino acids.

Proline is associated with the production of collagen which promotes healthy skin, joints, tendons, and heart muscle. Proline helps strengthen cardiac muscle. The metabolism of proline is connected to enzymes that require niacin and vitamin C.

Proline improves skin texture and aids collagen formation and helps contain the loss of collagen during aging. Collagen in the skin contains hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, which is formed from proline and lysine, in which ascorbic acid seems to be important in this conversion. Collagen contains about 15% proline. It is also thought to be important in the maintenance of muscles, joints and tendons.

Proline is mostly found in meat sources.

Serine Serine, a nonessential amino acid, is needed for the metabolism of fats and fatty acids, muscle growth, and a healthy immune system. It aids in the production of immunoglobulins and antibodies, and is a constituent of brain proteins and nerve sheaths. It is important in the production of cell membranes, and muscle tissue synthesis. Cancer-preventative. The methyl side chain of serine contains a hydroxy group, making this one of two amino acids that are also alcohols. Serine plays a major role in a variety of biosynthetic pathways including those involving pyrimidines, purines, creatine, and porphyrins. Serine is also found at the active site in an important class of enzymes termed “serine proteases” that include trypsin and chymotrypsin. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in polypeptides and proteins, a major function in the digestive process. On a molar basis, serine is incorporated into proteins at a rate of 7.1 percent compared to the other amino acids. Serine is required for the metabolism of fat, tissue growth and the immune system, as it assists in the production of immunoglobulins and antibodies. Some derivatives (e.g. ethanolamine) are also important components of the phospholipids found in biological membranes. It is a constituent of brain proteins and nerve coverings and is also important in the formation of cell membranes, involved in the metabolism of purines and pyrimidines, and muscle synthesis. It is also used in cosmetics as a skin moisturizer. Although toxicity has not been established, it has been found that very elevated serine levels may cause immune suppression and psychological symptoms as in cerebral allergies. It is found in meats and dairy products, wheat gluten, peanuts as well as soy products. Taurine Taurine, a nonessential amino acid, is found in high concentrations in the white blood cells, skeletal muscles, central nervous system as well as the heart muscles. In adults, but not children, this nutrient can be manufactured from methionine in the body and from cysteine in the liver. Vitamin B6 must be present for these processes to be successful. Taurine is a nonessential sulfur-containing amino acid that functions with glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid as a neuroinhibitory transmitter. While taurine does not have a genetic codon and is not incorporated into proteins and enzymes, it does play an important role in bile acid metabolism. Taurine is incorporated into one of the most abundant bile acids, chenodeoxychloic acid where it serves to emulsify dietary lipids in the intestine, promoting digestion. It is a key ingredient of bile, which in turn is needed for fat digestion, absorption of fat-soluble vitamins as well as the control of cholesterol serum levels in the body. (It is incorporated in the bile acid chenodeoxychloic acid, which emulsify the dietary fats). This nutrient is also used in the proper use of potassium, calcium, as well as sodium in the body, and for maintaining cell membrane integrity. It is thought to be helpful with anxiety, hyperactivity, poor brain function and epilepsy as well as hydrating the brain. Taurine, together with zinc, is also required for proper eye health and vision. A deficiency may impair vision and problems with fat metabolism may appear, and a theory exists that it may also be involved in epilepsy developing. Vegans who consume no eggs or dairy products ingest virtually no taurine through their diets, but normally have enough since the body can manufacture the requirements. Children with Down’s syndrome may benefit from taurine, and women being treated for breast cancer as well as people with metabolic disorders, since metabolic disorders can cause loss of this nutrient via urine. Diabetics may also benefit from this nutrient, since this disease increases the need for this nutrient. Taurine is found mostly in meat and fish. Except for infants, the human body is able to make taurine from cysteine—another amino acid. Threonine Threonine is another alcohol-containing amino acid that cannot be produced by metabolism, is found in high concentrations in the heart, skeletal muscles and central nervous system, and must be taken in the diet. This amino acid plays an important role along with glycine and serine in porphyrin metabolism. Threonine is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at a molar rate of 6 percent compared to the other amino acids. It is required to help maintain the proper protein balance in the body, as well as assist in the formation of collagen and elastin in the skin. It is further involved in liver functioning (including fighting fatty liver), lipotropic functions when combined with aspartic acid and methionine, as well as assisting the immune system by helping the production of antibodies and promotes thymus growth and activity. Other nutrients are also better absorbed when threonine is present, and it has also been used as part treatment of mental health. Threonine is a precursor of isoleucine and imbalance may result if the synthesis rate from asparate is incorrect. In humans, deficiency may result in irritability and a generally difficult personality. Good levels of threonine are found in most meats, dairy products and eggs, as well as in lower quantities in wheat germ, nuts, beans and some vegetables. Tryptophan Tryptophan is an essential amino acid and is needed to maintain optimum health. Tryptophan must be obtained from the diet. The unusual indole side chain of tryptophan is also the nucleus of the important neurotransmitter serotonin, which is biosynthesized from tryptophan. The aromatic portion of tryptophan also serves as an ultraviolet marker for detection of this amino acid either separately, or incorporated into proteins and enzymes, via ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Tryptophan is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at the molar rate of 1.1 percent compared to other amino acids, making it the rarest amino acid found in proteins. Tryptophan is required for the production of niacin (vitamin B3). It is used by the human body to produce serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is important for normal nerve and brain function. Serotonin is important in sleep, stabilizing emotional moods, pain control, inflammation, intestinal peristalsis, etc. It is further important in controlling hyperactivity in children, assists in alleviating stress, helps with weight loss and reducing appetite. It has been found that people suffering from migraine headaches have abnormal levels of tryptophan. In this case, supplementation may be helpful. A shortage of tryptophan, combined with a shortage of magnesium, may be a contributing factor to heart artery spasms. Supplementation with high dosage of Tryptophan could lead to gastrointestinal upsets, headaches, sleepiness and anxiety. Good dietary sources for this amino acid are cottage cheese, meat, soy protein and peanuts. Tyrosine Tyrosine was first isolated from casein in 1849 and is abundant in insulin as well as the enzyme papain and can be synthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine in the body. Tyrosine is an nonessential amino acid, a precursor for L-dopa, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine. Tyrosine is vital to mental function and enhances the sex drive. It is used to produce thyroxin which regulates growth, metabolism, skin, and mental health. Tyrosine is metabolically synthesized from phenylalanine to become the para-hydroxy derivative of that important amino acid. This hydroxylated amino acid participates in the synthesis of many important biochemicals including the thyroid hormones, the melanin biological pigments, and the catecholamines, an important class of biological regulators. Tyrosine is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at the molar rate of 3.5 percent with respect to the other amino acids. It is a precursor of the neurotransmitters epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine, all of them extremely important in the brain and transmits nerve impulses, and prevents depression. Dopamine is also vital to mental function and seems to play a role in sex drive. The action of this amino acid in brain functions is clear with its link to dopamine as well as norepinephrine. It is also helpful in suppressing the appetite and reducing body fat, production of skin and hair pigment, the proper functioning of the thyroid, as well as the pituitary and adrenal gland. It is used for stress reduction and may be beneficial in narcolepsy, fatigue, anxiety, depression, allergies, headaches, as well as drug withdrawal. In a study using soldiers, tyrosine proved effective in alleviating stress and keeping them more alert. Tyrosine, a parent amino acid for skin, hair, and eye pigments, is involved in syndromes, known generally as oculocutaneous albinism, that are characterized by the failure to form melanin pigments, resulting in partial or complete albinism. It is also the precursor amino acid for the thyroid gland hormone thyroxin, and a defect in this may result in hypothyroidism – an enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter), severe growth failure, and retardation of central nervous system development. A deficiency may also have symptoms of low blood pressure, low body temperature (including cold hands and feet) and “restless leg syndrome.” Tyrosine and tryptophan have with been used with some success in the treatment of cocaine abuse and in another study it was combined with the antidepressant Imipramine to treat chronic cocaine abuse where it was reported that the combination blocked the cocaine high and prevented the severe depression that accompanies withdrawal. Meat, dairy products, eggs, as well as almonds, avocados and bananas are good sources of this nutrient. Valine Valine is an aliphatic amino acid that is closely related to leucine and isoleucine both in structure and function. These amino acids are extremely hydrophobic and are almost always found in the interior of proteins. They are also seldom useful in routine biochemical reactions, but are relegated to the duty of determining the three-dimensional structure of proteins due to their hydrophobic nature. They are also essential amino acids and must be obtained in the diet. Important sources of valine include soy flour, cottage cheese, fish, meats, and vegetables. Valine is incorporated into proteins and enzymes at the molar rate of 6.9 percent when compared to the other amino acids. The branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. BCAAs are considered essential amino acids, because human beings cannot survive unless these amino acids are present in the diet. BCAAs are needed for the maintenance of muscle tissue and appear to preserve muscle stores of glycogen (a storage form of carbohydrate that can be converted into energy). BCAAs also help prevent muscle protein breakdown during exercise. Some research has shown that BCAA supplementation (typically 10–20 grams per day) does not result in meaningful changes in body composition, nor does it improve exercise performance or enhance the effects of physical training. However, BCAA supplementation may be useful in special situations, such as preventing muscle loss at high altitudes and prolonging endurance performance in the heat. Studies by one group of researchers suggest that BCAA supplementation may also improve exercise-induced declines in some aspects of mental functioning. BCAAs can activate glutamate dehydrogenase—an enzyme that is deficient in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig’s disease. In one double-blind trial, 26 grams per day of BCAA supplements helped those with ALS maintain muscle strength. However, a larger study was ended early when people using BCAAs not only failed to improve, but experienced higher death rates than the placebo group. Other studies have shown no benefit of BCAA supplementation for ALS or other neuromuscular diseases, though a small group of people suffering from diseases of the nervous system, collectively called spinocerebellar degeneration, did improve when given BCAAs in a preliminary study. One study investigating the advantages of BCAA supplementation for people with diabetes undergoing an intense exercise program found no additional benefit of BCAAs on reducing abdominal fat or improving glucose metabolism. Patients with liver diseases that lead to coma—called hepatic encephalopathy—have low concentrations of BCAAs and excess levels of certain other amino acids. Preliminary research suggested that people with this condition might be helped by BCAAs. Double-blind studies have produced somewhat inconsistent results, but a re-analysis of these studies found an overall benefit for the symptoms of encephalopathy. Therapeutic effects of BCAAs have also been shown in children with liver failure and adults with cirrhosis of the liver. Any treatment of people with liver failure requires the direction of a physician. People with chronic kidney failure may also benefit from BCAA supplementation. A preliminary study found improved breathing and sleep quality in people given intravenous BCAAs during kidney dialysis. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease that causes abnormally high amounts of phenylalanine and its end products to accumulate in the blood, causing damage to the nervous system. A controlled trial demonstrated that regular use of BCAAs by adolescents and young adults with PKU, improved performance on some tests of mental functioning. This outcome makes sense because BCAAs may compete with phenylalanine, reducing its toxic effects. In tardive dyskinesia, phenylalanine levels have also been reported to be elevated. As a result, one group of researchers gave tardive dyskinesia patients BCAAs (from 150 mg per 2.2 pounds body weight, up to 209 mg per 2.2 pounds body weight) after breakfast, and one hour before lunch and dinner for two weeks. The BCAA mixture included equal parts valine and isoleucine plus 33% more leucine than either of the other two amino acids. Of nine patients so treated, six had at least a 58% decrease in symptoms, and all people in the study had a decrease of at least 38% in symptoms. Only a person deficient in protein would become deficient in BCAAs, because most foods that are sources of protein, supply BCAAs. Few people in Western societies are protein deficient. Side effects have not been reported with the use of BCAAs. Until more research is conducted, people with ALS should avoid taking supplemental BCAAs. At high intakes, BCAAs are simply converted into other amino acids, used as energy, or converted to fat for storage. However, people with kidney or liver disease should not consume high amounts of amino acids without consulting their doctor. Dairy products and red meat contain the greatest amounts of BCAAs, although they are present in all protein-containing foods. Whey protein and egg protein supplements are other sources of BCAAs. BCAA supplements provide the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine. CARBOHYDRATES Simple Sugar Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and are classified according to whether they are aldehyde or ketone derivatives, as well as the number of atoms contained in the molecule. Single hexoses, glucose and galactose require no digestion and can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Hexoses contain six carbon atoms, and are found in foods, while pentoses, ribose and deoxyribose contain five carbon atoms and are produced during the metabolism of foodstuffs. Three common sugars—glucose, galactose, and fructose, share the same molecular formula: C6H12O6. Because of their six carbon atoms, each is a hexose. Although all three share the same molecular formula, the arrangement of atoms differs in each case. Substances such as these three, which have identical molecular formulas but different structural formulas, are known as structural isomers. Glucose
“Blood sugar” is the immediate source of energy for cellular respiration. Glucose, which is also referred to as dextrose, is a moderately sweet sugar found in vegetables and fruit. When glucose is fermented by the enzyme zymase, in yeast, it results in the formation of carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. It is the basic structure to which all carbohydrates are reduced to in the end, for transport via the bloodstream and use by the cells of the body.
Two different pathways are involved in the metabolism of glucose: one anaerobic and one aerobic. The anaerobic process occurs in the cytoplasm and is only moderately efficient. The aerobic cycle takes place in the mitochondria and results in the greatest release of energy. As the name implies, though, it requires oxygen. Galactose
Galactose is not normally found in nature, but is mostly hydrolyzed from the disaccharide lactose, which is found in milk, as part of a disaccharide made by glycosidic linkage to a glucose molecule. The lactose disaccharide from milk is a major energy source for almost all animals, including human. Although not very water-soluble, and less sweet than glucose, it forms part of glycolipids and glycoproteins, which is found in many tissues. The body can change glucose to galactose in order to enable the mammary glands to produce lactose.
Galactose is natural and is a basic component of many things, being found in milk, tomatoes and many fruits and vegetables. There is only one product range in the world that uses galactose as a basic food and drink ingredient, and that is a brand new range of energy drinks.
Galactose has uniquely different properties compared to other sugars. These properties make it easier to lose and maintain weight; they are useful in warding off adult-onset diabetes; they give much steadier energy through time, and they provide the basis for products for athletes which allow them to perform better and longer. Galactose is a remarkable undiscovered sugar for the new Millennium. Fructose
Fructose’s chemical name is levulose. Fructose is also called the fruit sugar. Fructose is found in fruits, honey, and the sole sugar in bull and human semen. It is the sweetest of sugars. It is used for preventing sandiness in ice cream. The compound’s formula is C6H12O6. It is shaped in orthorhombic, bispherodial prisms.
Fructose taken in large quantities is associated with gastrointestinal distress, and is also associated with increases in the fat content of blood following meals rich in this. A large quantity of fat in the blood is thought to be a major risk factor for heart disease. Sugar Alcohol Common sugar alcohols are mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, isomalt, maltitol and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH). These sweeteners are neither sugars, nor alcohols, but they are carbohydrates nonetheless. They are sometimes called POLYOLS, are ingredients used as sweeteners and bulking agents. They occur naturally in foods and come from plant products such as fruits and berries. As a sugar substitute, they provide fewer calories (about a half to one-third less calories) than regular sugar. This is because they are converted to glucose more slowly, require little or no insulin to be metabolized and don’t cause sudden increases in blood sugar. This makes them popular among individuals with diabetes; however, their use is becoming more common by just about everyone. You may be consuming them and not even know it. Sugar alcohols are not commonly used in home food preparation, but are found in many processed foods. Food products labeled “sugar-free,” including hard candies, cookies, chewing gums, soft drinks and throat lozenges often consist of sugar alcohols. They are frequently used in toothpaste and mouthwash, too. There are some claims that sugar alcohols don’t have carbs, and therefore don’t count; that they can be completely subtracted if listed on the label. This statement is not entirely “false” but it is misleading. Sugar alcohols do have carbs, and approx. 1/2 to 3/4 the calories of regular sugar. They are more slowly and incompletely absorbed from the small intestine than sugar, thus producing a much smaller and slower rise in blood sugar … and consequently insulin. But this is a YMMV thing. Some Type 1 diabetics have reported that they sense an immediate “sugar rush” from eating even a small amount. Others notice no change, and absolutely no effect on ketosis. On the positive side, sugar alcohols contain less calories (1.5 – 3 calories per gram) than sugar (4 calories per gram), and they do not cause tooth decay like sugar does. Therefore, many “sugar-free” gums including Trident® and Extra® are made with sugar alcohols. Sugar alcohols also add texture to foods, retain moisture better and prevent foods from browning when they are heated. Unfortunately, there are some negatives associated with sugar alcohols. The most common side effect is the possibility of bloating and diarrhea when sugar alcohols are eaten in excessive amounts. There is also some evidence that sugar alcohols, much like fructose (natural fruit sugar) in fruit and fruit juice can cause a “laxative effect.” Weight gain has been seen when these products are overeaten. The American Diabetes Association claims that sugar alcohols are acceptable in a moderate amount but should not be eaten in excess. Some people with diabetes, especially Type I diabetics, have found that their blood sugars rise if sugar alcohols are eaten in uncontrolled amounts. We are all individuals, and our bodies will react differently to these products. Depending on other factors, such as what else we’ve consumed along with it or on an empty stomach, we may even find ourselves having totally different reactions each time we eat it. So proceed with caution. Be aware that there is potential to cause a rise in blood sugar and insulin … although slower. Also the possibility to knock you out of ketosis, if you’re following a ketogenic program such as Atkins. Pay attention to the serving SIZE. A 45-gram (1-1/2 oz) chocolate bar may state on the label that one serving is 15 grams (1/2 oz). That’s only 1/3 of the bar, so keep that in mind when you’re about to chow down. If you are following Induction level low carb eating, it would be wise to avoid these products until at LEAST the 2 weeks are up, and your body’s metabolism is settled well into ketosis and fat-burning mode. Same for other low carb programs, which may not be ketogenic, but do have strong effects on the metabolism (eg. Protein Power, Carb Addicts). Give your body the chance to adjust to the new WOE first, then cautiously add these products. KEYWORD moderation. Most low carbers find they can indulge very occasionally in a polyol-sweetened treat without consequence to their weight loss effort, and perhaps a mild laxative effect or some gas. It’s a trade-off, but helps to stave off cravings for high-sugar goodies. A problem could develop though, for someone with carb-addiction …. these candies just become a substitute addiction. Also, the sweet taste can trigger EMOTIONS (for an addict) that will result in a “rush” of hormones and enzymes in the body, ultimately leading to an insulin spike … and fat STORAGE. And remember that candy is NOT a meal substitute. There’s little or no protein, vitamins or essential fatty acids. Alcohol and Ethanol Alcohol and ethanol are formed by the fermentation of glucose by the enzyme in yeast, and although it contains very little nutritional value, it may represent a large part of the energy intake of individuals ingesting large amounts of alcohol. Alcohol is one of the four energy sources of the human body along with carbohydrates, fat and protein. If you study how wine is metabolized, you learn that the liver converts the alcohol into acetate, which the body burns for fuel. The body creates 7 calories of energy per gram of alcohol. Ethanol is made by fermenting and then distilling starch and sugar crops — maize, sorghum, potatoes, wheat, sugar-cane, even cornstalks, fruit and vegetable waste. Ethanol does not require digestion and is directly absorbed through the gastrointestinal track. It is metabolized primarily in the liver by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase where ethanol is converted to acetaldehyde. The rate of metabolism of alcohol is increased by the simultaneous metabolism of carbohydrate pyruvate. Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol), according to the US Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory, is a “clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable odour” — and taste, some would add. This is the drinkable alcohol, the active ingredient in beer, wine and spirits. Methanol (methyl alcohol, wood alcohol) is the poisonous one. Ethanol is also a high-performance motor fuel that cuts poisonous exhaust emissions and is better for the environment. One ethanol plant owned by farmers in Minnesota processes 11,751 bushels of grain a day to produce 33,990 gallons of ethanol and 95 tons of high-protein livestock feed. If you happen to have a spare acre in your back yard, you can raise enough maize to make enough ethanol to drive even a gas-guzzling Land Rover (17.5 miles per gallon) about 5,000 miles, along with enough animal feed to help keep you in eggs and chickens. If the climate favours sugarcane, an acre’s worth will take you nearly 15,000 miles. A few fruit trees would help a lot, too. You could put the by-product in a digester, along with other organic wastes, to produce methane gas for cooking — or as a heat source for the distillation process. Disaccharides Disaccharides are compounds that contain a bond between carbon(1) of one sugar and a hydroxyl group at any position on the other sugar. Disaccharides are sugars containing two hexose units, such as sucrose in cane sugar, maltose in malt sugar and lactose in milk sugar. These sugars are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides in the digestive tract by specific enzymes and each of these specific sugars—sucrose, maltose and lactose—have a role to play in human nutrition. Sucrose
The disaccharide important for the nutrition is—as other sugars too—not a rigid, but a flexible structure.
Sucrose, ordinary table sugar, is probably the single most abundant pure organic chemical in the world and the one most widely known to nonchemists. Whether from sugar cane (20% by weight) or sugar beets (15% by weight), and whether raw or refined, common sugar is still sucrose.
Sucrose is a disaccharide that yields 1 equiv of glucose and 1 equiv of fructose on acidic hydrolysis. This 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose is often referred to as invert sugar, since the sign of optical rotation changes (inverts) during the hydrolysis from sucrose ([alpha]D = +66.5°) to a glucose fructose mixture ([alpha]D = -22.0°). Certain insects, particularly honeybees, have enzymes called invertases that catalyze the hydrolysis of sucrose to a glucose-fructose mixture. Honey, in fact, is primarily a mixture of these three sugars.
Unlike most other disaccharides, sucrose is not a reducing sugar and does not exhibit mutarotation. These facts imply that sucrose has no hemiacetal linkages and that glucose and fructose must both be glycosides. This can happen only if the two sugars are joined by a glycoside link between C1 of glucose and C2 of fructose. Maltose
The disaccharide obtained by enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of starch, consists of two D-glucopyranoses joined by a 1,4′-beta-glycoside bond. Both maltose and cellobiose are reducing sugars because the anomeric carbons on the right-hand sugar are part of a hemiacetal.
Despite the similarities of their structures, cellobiose and maltose are dramatically different biologically. Cellobiose cannot be digested by humans and cannot be fermented by yeast. Maltose, however, is digested without difficulty and is fermented readily. Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide that occurs naturally in both human and cow’s milk. It is widely used in baking and in commercial infant-milk formulas.
Like cellobiose and maltose, lactose is a reducing sugar. It exhibits muta-rotation and is a 1,4′-beta-linked glycoside. Unlike cellobiose and maltose, however, lactose contains two different monosaccharide units. Acidic hydrolysis of lactose yields 1 equiv of D-glucose and 1 equiv of D-galactose; the two are joined by a beta-glycoside bond between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose. Trisaccharides Trisaccharides are sugars containing three hexoses. Raffinose, found in molasses contain the three hexoses. Raffinose
Raffinose is a white crystalline sugar, C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆·5H₂O, obtained from cottonseed meal, sugar beets, and molasses.
A trisaccharide built from 1 mol each of D-galactose, D-glucose, and D-fructose are obtained from it by acid hydrolysis. Invertase splits it into melibiose and saccharose. Occurs in Australian manna (from Eucalyptus spp, Myrtaceae) in cottonseed meal. Carbohydrates Dextrin An intermediate product formed during the hydrolysis of starch to sugars. There are three classes of dextrin: Amylodextrin, which gives a blue color with iodine and is soluble in 25% alcohol; Erythrodextrin, which gives a red color with iodine and is soluble in 55% alcohol; and Achrodextrin, which gives no color with iodine and is soluble in 70% alcohol. Dextrin occurs as an intermediate product of starch hydrolysis and is achieved by either enzymatic action or by cooking. They do not have the same thickening qualities of starch and the molecules are also smaller than that of starch. It is formed when bread or cereals are browned or toasted. The term dextrin describes a class of intermediate ingredients produced by treating starches with heat, acid, or enzymes. Synonyms for dextrins include starch gum, vegetable gum, and even tapioca. Dextrin is used as a diluting agent for pills and capsules, as well as a thickener in creams and foam stabilizer in beer. It can also be found in baked goods, candy, gravies, pie fillings, poultry, puddings, and soups. FDA considers it Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) when used in amounts sufficient for its purpose. Dextrin, any one of a number of carbohydrates having the same general formula as starch but a smaller and less complex molecule. They are polysaccharides and are produced as intermediate products in the hydrolysis of starch by heat, by acids, and by enzymes. Their nature and their chemical behavior depend to a great extent on the kind of starch from which they are derived. For example, some react with iodine to give a reddish-brown color, others a blue, and still others yield no color at all. For commercial use dextrin is prepared by heating dry starch or starch treated with acids to produce a colorless or yellowish, tasteless, odorless powder which, when mixed with water, forms a strongly adhesive paste. It is used widely in adhesives, e.g., for postage stamps, envelopes, and wallpapers, and for sizing paper and textiles. Starch Starch is the major carbohydrate reserve in plant tubers and seed endosperm where it is found as granules, each typically containing several million amylopectin molecules accompanied by a much larger number of smaller amylose molecules. By far the largest source of starch is corn (maize) with other commonly used sources being wheat, potato, tapioca and rice. Amylopectin (without amylose) can be isolated from ‘waxy’ maize starch whereas amylose (without amylopectin) is best isolated after specifically hydrolyzing the amylopectin with pullulanase. Genetic modification of starch crops has recently led to the development of starches with improved and targeted functionality. Starch is a white, odorless, tasteless, carbohydrate powder. It plays a vital role in the biochemistry of both plants and animals and has important commercial uses. In green plants starch is produced by photosynthesis; it is one of the chief forms in which plants store food. It is stored most abundantly in tubers (e.g., the white potato), roots (e.g., the sweet potato), seeds, and fruits; it appears in the form of grains that differ in size, shape, and markings in various plants. The plant source can usually be identified by microscopic examination of the starch grains. Starch obtained by animals from plants is stored in the animal body in the form of glycogen. Digestive processes in both plants and animals convert starch to glucose, a source of energy. Starch is one of the major nutrients in the human diet. Its presence in foods and other substances can be detected by the blue-black color produced when iodine solution is added to a sample of the material to be tested. By treatment with hot water, starch granules have been shown to consist of at least two components, known as amylopectin and amylose. Amylopectin is a branched glucose polymer; amylose is a linear glucose polymer. Commercially starch is prepared chiefly from corn and potatoes. Starch is widely used for sizing paper and textiles, for stiffening laundered fabrics, in the manufacture of food products, and in making dextrin. In addition to its other uses, cornstarch is a source of corn syrup, of which large quantities are used in making table syrup, preserves, ice cream, and other confections. Corn sugar (glucose) is also derived from cornstarch. Starch is important because we eat it! Starch is found in potatoes, and in grains such as corn and wheat. Starch is made up of glucose repeat units. In your body, special proteins called enzymes (which are also polymers, by the way) break starch down into glucose, so your body can burn it for energy. If you’re eating a healthy diet, you get most of your energy from starch in this way. Because it is made of sugar molecules it is called a polysaccharide. It is very similar to cellulose. Starch has a few other uses other than food. It’s used in pressing clothes to keep them from wrinkling. It’s also used to make a foam packing. Starch is biodegradable, so starch foam packing is an environmentally-friendly alternative to styrofoam packing. But be careful! Starch is versatile and cheap, and has many uses as thickener, water binder, emulsion stabilizer and gelling agent. Starch is often used as an inherent natural ingredient but it is also added for its functionality. It is naturally found tightly and radially packed into dehydrated granules (about one water per glucose) with origin-specific shape and size (maize, 2-30 µm; wheat, 1-45 µm; potato, 5-100 µm). The size distribution determines its swelling functionality with granules being generally either larger and lenticular (lens-like, A-starch) or smaller and spherical (B-starch) with less swelling power. Granules contain ‘blocklets’ of amylopectin containing both crystalline (~30%) and amorphous areas. As they absorb water, they swell, lose crystallinity and leach amylose. The higher the amylose content, the lower is the swelling power and the smaller is the gel strength for the same starch concentration. To a certain extent, however, a smaller swelling power due to high amylose content can be counteracted by a larger granule size. Although the properties of starch are naturally inconsistent, being dependent on the vagaries of agriculture, there are several suppliers of consistently uniform starches as functional ingredients Cellulose The existence of cellulose as the common material of plant cell walls was first recognized by Anselm Payen in 1838. It occurs in almost pure form in cotton fiber and in combination with other materials, such as lignin and hemicelluloses, in wood, plant leaves and stalks, etc. Although generally considered a plant material, cellulose is also produced by some bacteria. It has been accepted for many years that cellulose is a long chain polymer, made up of repeating units of glucose, a simple sugar. In the early 1900s, cellulose was further characterized by Cross and Bevan. They removed the related plant materials that occur in combination with cellulose by dissolving them in a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. They designated the undissolved residue as a-cellulose. The soluble materials (designated as b-cellulose and ¡-cellulose) were later shown not to be celluloses, but rather, relatively simple sugars and other carbohydrates. The a-cellulose of Cross and Bevan is what is usually meant when the term “cellulose” is used now. As a carbohydrate, the chemistry of cellulose is primarily the chemistry of alcohols; and it forms many of the common derivatives of alcohols, such as esters, ethers, etc. These derivatives form the basis for much of the industrial technology of cellulose in use today. Cellulose derivatives are used commercially in two ways, as transient intermediates or as permanent products. Because of the strong hydrogen bonds that occur between cellulose chains, cellulose does not melt or dissolve in common solvents. Thus, it is difficult to convert the short fibers from wood pulp into the continuous filaments needed for artificial silk, an early goal of cellulose chemistry. Several different cellulose derivatives were examined as early routes to artificial silk, but only two, the acetate and xanthate esters, are of commercial importance for fibers today. Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. Cellulose is an excellent fiber. Wood, cotton, and hemp rope are all made of fibrous cellulose. Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose. This is the same glucose which your body metabolizes in order to live, but you can’t digest it in the form of cellulose. Because cellulose is built out of a sugar monomer, it is called a polysaccharide. Cellulose has an important place in the story of polymers because it was used to make some of the first synthetic polymers, like cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, and rayon. Another cellulose derivative is hydroxyethylcellulose. It differs from plain ol’ regular cellulose in that some or all of the hydroxyl groups of the glucose repeat unit have been replaced with hydroxyethyl ether groups. These hydroxyethyl groups get in the way when the polymer tries to crystallize. Because it can’t crystallize, hydroxyethylcellulose is soluble in water. In addition to being a great laxative, it’s used to thicken shampoos as well. It also makes the soap in the shampoo less foamy, and it helps the shampoo clean better by forming colloids around dirt particles. Cellulose has many uses as an anticake agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, dispersing agent, thickener, and gelling agent but these are generally subsidiary to its most important use of holding on to water. Dry amorphous cellulose absorbs water becoming soft and flexible. Some of this water is non-freezing but most is simply trapped. Less water is bound by direct hydrogen bonding if the cellulose has high crystallinity but some fibrous cellulose products can hold on to considerable water in pores and its typically straw-like cavities; water holding ability correlating well with the amorphous (surface area effect) and void fraction (i.e. the porosity). As such water is supercoolable, this effect may protect against ice damage. Cellulose can give improved volume and texture, particularly as a fat replacer in sauces and dressings, but its insolubility means that all products will be cloudy. Swelled bacterial cellulose (ex. Acetobacter xylinum) exhibits pseudoplastic viscosity like xanthan gels but this viscosity is not lost at high temperatures and low shear rates as the cellulose can retain its structure. Where individual cellulose strands are surrounded by water they are flexible and do not present contiguous hydrophobic surfaces. Methylcellulose Methylcellulose is part of the group “complex carbohydrates” and can absorb large quantities of water. Methylcellulose, and other cellulose derivatives are used in the manufacture of low calorie foods such as imitation syrups and salad dressings low in calories. Methylcellulose is a semisynthetic, bulk Forming Fiber Laxative used for short-term treatment of constipation. Bulk laxatives absorb liquid in the intestines and swell to form a soft bulky stool. The bulky mass stimulates the intestinal muscles, speeding stool transit time through the colon. Methylcellulose will not work as a bulk forming laxative without increased fluid intake. Results usually occur within twelve to seventy two hours. Fiber is found in the stems, seeds and leaves of plants. It is made up of chains of sugar but humans do not have the enzymes in their digestive tract to be able to break these chains down. A small amount of the fiber can be broken down by the enzymes of the bacteria that live in the human digestive tract. Most of the fiber is not broken down and goes out of the body in the feces. “Fiber” is a very broad term. More precise terms are soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber dissolves in water and can be broken down by bacterial enzymes, while insoluble fiber cannot. The distinction is important because the solubility of the fiber determines its health benefit. Fiber found in food is usually a mixture of both types of fiber, while purified fiber supplements may contain just one type of fiber. Dietary sources of fiber are plentiful. Fruits, vegetables, seeds and legumes (dried peas and beans such as lentils, split peas, red beans and pinto beans) contain both types of fiber. Barley, oats, oat bran and rye contain predominantly soluble fiber. Wheat bran, brown rice and whole grains (grains that have not been refined) are excellent sources of insoluble fiber. Supplemental sources of fiber include psyllium, methylcellulose or polycarbophil as well as fiber extracted from fruits, vegetables and grains. Psyllium is a concentrated source of fiber from the husks of the psyllium plant. Methylcellulose and polycarbophil are chemically altered forms of cellulose (the cell wall of many plants). The chemical alterations make them resistant to bacterial breakdown. General health recommendations call for a daily consumption of 20-40 grams of fiber, but the average American consumes less than 15 grams. Although the amount of soluble and insoluble fiber is not specified, it is assumed that people will receive both types of fiber. Glycogen Glycogen is the principal storage form of glucose in animal cells. In humans, the most glycogen is found in the liver (10% of the liver mass), whereas muscles only contain a relatively low amount of glycogen (1% of the muscle mass). In addition, small amounts of glycogen are found in certain glial cells in the brain. Sometimes called “animal starch” for its resemblance with starch found in plants, it is stored in liver and muscle cells and can be converted to glucose if needed. In the liver this conversion is regulated by the hormone glucagon. Under certain conditions, between meals for instance, liver glycogen is an important source of blood glucose. Muscle cell glycogen appears to be only for local use. Glycogen is the primary glucose (energy) storage mechanism. It is stored in the form of granules in the cytosol which is where glycolysis takes place. These granules contain both glycogen and the necessary enzymes for its conversion into glucose. Glycogen is a highly branched glucose polymer. It is formed of small chains of 8 to 12 glucose molecules linked together with &alpha (1®4) bonds. These small chains are in turn linked together with &alpha (1®6) bonds. A single molecule of glycogen can be made of up to 120,000 molecules of glucose. It is generated from glucose by the enzyme glycogen synthase. This process is called glycogenesis. The addition of a glucose molecule to glycogen takes two high energy bonds: one from ATP and one from UTP. Its breakdown into glucose, called glycogenolysis, is mediated by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. It’s highly branched. Glycogen is a quick storage vehicle for the body to keep large amounts of glucose when it is not needed by the body. It is classed as a polysaccharide. Although much like amylopectin, glycogen contains more branched chains and has a higher molecular weight. It is stored in both the liver and muscles, but the liver store is more readily available for energy and blood sugar level maintenance, while the muscle store is mostly used for muscle fuel. Glycogen stores of readily available glucose to supply the tissues with an oxidizable energy source are found principally in the liver, as glycogen. A second major source of stored glucose is the glycogen of skeletal muscle. However, muscle glycogen is not generally available to other tissues, because muscle lacks the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase. The major site of daily glucose consumption (75%) is the brain via aerobic pathways. Most of the remainder is utilized by erythrocytes, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle. The body obtains glucose either directly from the diet or from amino acids and lactate via gluconeogenesis. Glucose obtained from these two primary sources either remains soluble in the body fluids or is stored in a polymeric form, glycogen. Glycogen is considered the principal storage form of glucose and is found mainly in liver and muscle, with kidney and intestines adding minor storage sites. With up to 10% of its weight as glycogen, the liver has the highest specific content of any body tissue. Muscle has a much lower amount of glycogen per unit mass of tissue, but since the total mass of muscle is so much greater than that of liver, total glycogen stored in muscle is about twice that of liver. Stores of glycogen in the liver are considered the main buffer of blood glucose levels. Polysaccharides Polysaccharides contain many times more glucose molecules than that of sugars, since they are used for storage of potential energy. These polysaccharides are normally less soluble than sugars, but are also far more stable. To enable the human body to utilize these nutrients, it must be able to digest them. Some of this group, like starch and dextrin, can be digested, while cellulose and hemicelluloses cannot be digested, but are beneficial for use as fiber in the human diet. Polysaccharides form a heterogeneous group of polymers of different length and composition. They are constructed from monosaccharide residues that are linked by glycosidic bonds. It has already been shown that Both alpha- and beta-glycosidic linkages exist. These linkages may be located between the C1 (or C2) of one sugar residue and the C2, C3, C4, C5 or C6 of the second residue. A branched sugar results if more than two types of linkages are present in a single molecule. A polysaccharide may consist of one (homopolymer) or several types of monomers (heteropolymer). These construction principles would allow an indefinite number of different polysaccharides. But only a fraction of these are actually found in nature, since only certain combinations won through in the course of evolution. The most common sugar found in polysaccharides is glucose. Its polymers are called glucanes. In the following explanation about the construction principles of polysaccarides, only glucanes will be used as examples. Nevertheless, a huge amount of further homo- and heteropolymers exists especially in plants. Many of them are components of the cell walls. Some are widespread, others are refined to single plant groups. Polysaccharides have been proposed as the first biopolymers to have formed on Earth. They are classified on the basis of their main monosaccharide components and the sequences and linkages between them, as well as the anomeric configuration of linkages, the ring size (furanose or pyranose), the absolute configuration (D- or L-) and any other substituents present. Certain structural characteristics such as chain conformation and intermolecular associations will influence the physicochemical properties of polysaccharides. The most stable arrangement of atoms in a polysaccharide will be that which satisfies both the intra- and inter-molecular forces. Regular ordered polysaccharides, in general, are capable of assuming only a limited number of conformations due to severe steric restrictions on the freedom of rotation of sugar units about the inter-unit glycosidic bonds. There is also a clear correlation between allowed conformations and linkage structure. The structural non-starch polysaccharides, such as cellulose, and xylan, have preferred orientations that automatically support extended conformations. Storage polysaccharides such as the chains in amylopectin tend to adopt wide helical conformations. The degree of stiffness and regularity of polysaccharide chains is likely to affect the rate and extent of their fermentation. Pentose sugars such as arabinose and xylose can adopt one of two specific conformations, furanose rings (often formed by arabinose) that can oscillate and are more flexible, and pyranose rings (usually formed by xylose and glucose) which are less flexible. Cereal arabinoxylans are composed of b-linked xylan chains and are relatively stiff molecules with extended conformations. The flexibility of arabinoxylans is decreased with increasing arabinosylation, but the key parameter is likely to be the distribution of these side-chains along the backbone since this will have the most direct effect on conformation. Also, due to their extended conformation, arabinoxylans exhibit a very high viscosity in aqueous solution. Pectins, containing galacturonic acid residues, form more flexible extended conformations and also have regular “hairy” regions with pendant arabinogalactans. Carbohydrates, especially those containing large numbers of hydroxyl groups, are often thought of as being hydrophilic but they are also capable of generating apolar surfaces depending on the monomer ring conformation, the epimeric structure, and the stereochemistry of the glycosidic linkages. Apolarity has been demonstrated for dextrin, a-(1®4)-linked glucans, while dextrans, a-(1®6)-glucans, and cellulose, a-(1®4)-glucans, are much less hydrophobic (in solution) and unable to project an apolar surface. Hydrophobicity will also be affected by the degree of polysaccharide hydration, particularly the amount of intra-molecular hydrogen bonding. Hydrophobicity will affect their availability for fermentation in the gut, and their binding to bile acids. Polysaccharides are more hydrophobic if they have a greater number of internal hydrogen bonds, and as their hydrophobicity increases there is less direct interaction with water. Carbohydrates contain alcohol groups that preferentially interact with two water molecules each if they are not interacting with other hydroxyl groups on the molecule. They will preferentially interact with water if the hydroxyl groups are equatorial on the pyranose rings. Sugar residues have a specific conformation, often the so-called ⁴C₁ chair conformation. This is illustrated on the right below where the ring oxygen is at the back, the 4-carbon is ‘up’ and the 1-carbon is ‘down.’ Conversely, furanose rings can oscillate and have a more flexible structure than pyranose rings, which means that they are less likely to have a fixed interaction with a molecule of water as energy will be lost in this process. Pectin
Pectin is classified as a polysaccharide under the carbohydrate content of nutrition. Commercial pectin is usually available in either powder or liquid form. These two forms are not interchangeable, so use the type specified in the recipe. Powdered pectin is mixed with the unheated fruit or juice. Liquid pectin is added to the cooked fruit and sugar mixture immediately after it is removed from the heat. When making jellies or jams with added pectin, use fully-ripe fruit.
Pectin is a “gum” found naturally in fruits that causes jelly to gel. Tart apples, crab apples, sour plums, Concord grapes, quinces, gooseberries, red currants and cranberries are especially high in pectin. Apricots, blueberries, cherries, peaches, pineapple, rhubarb and strawberries are low in pectin. Underripe fruit has more pectin than fully ripe fruit. Jellies and jams made without added pectin should use 1/4 underripe fruit. Fiber The term fiber refers to carbohydrates that cannot be digested. Fiber is present in all plants that are eaten for food, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes. However, not all fiber is the same, and there are a number of ways to categorize it. One is by its source or origin. For example, fiber from grains is referred to as cereal fiber. Another way of categorizing fiber is by how easily it dissolves in water. Soluble fiber partially dissolves in water. Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. These differences are important when it comes to fiber’s effect on your risk of developing certain diseases. There are many advantages in bringing fiber into your diet. It moves food through your digestive system quickly. It protects you from absorbing toxins, which may be associated with your food (pesticides, for example). It modulates the absorption of simple carbs. And last, but not least, it keeps the walls of the intestine clean by removing toxins which are believed to cause cancer. Fiber also modulates the amount of salt you consume, containing just the right amount, and thus works to prevent hypertension and the results of hypertension: kidney and heart disease. Fiber is good stuff! You can get some at your local vegetable store. The digestive value of fiber cannot be overemphasized. For approximately the past sixty years, the major thrust in the processed food industry has been to reduce or eliminate the amount of fiber left in food. Flour has been “purified” and comes from the wheat kernel stripped of the fiber-containing shell or chafe. Rice has been treated in an identical fashion. The result is that the average diet has had fiber largely replaced by fat, protein and simple carbs. Long heralded as part of a healthy diet, fiber appears to reduce the risk of developing various conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, diverticular disease, and constipation. Despite what many people may think, however, fiber probably has little, if any effect on colon cancer risk. Health Effects of Eating Fiber Colon cancer
For years, Americans have been told to consume a high-fiber diet to lower the risk of colon cancer—mainly on the basis of results from a number of relatively small studies. Unfortunately, this recommendation now seems mistaken, as larger and better-designed studies have failed to show a link between fiber and colon cancer. One of these—a Harvard study that followed over 80,000 female nurses for 16 years—found that dietary fiber was not strongly associated with a reduced risk for either colon cancer or polyps (a precursor to colon cancer). But just because fiber most likely plays no role in preventing colon cancer, that doesn’t mean you should abandon a high-fiber diet. As explained below, fiber provides many benefits beyond its discredited role in cancer. Heart disease
In the United States, coronary heart disease is a leading cause of death for both men and women. This disease is characterized by a buildup of cholesterol in the coronary arteries—the arteries that feed the heart—causing them to become hard and narrow, a process referred to as atherosclerosis. Total blockage of a coronary artery produces a heart attack. A high dietary fiber intake has been linked to a lower risk of heart disease in a number of large studies that followed people for many years. Type II Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. It is characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. It tends to develop when the body can no longer produce enough of the hormone insulin to lower blood sugar to normal levels or cannot properly use the insulin that it does produce. There are several important factors that may help lower your risk for type 2 diabetes, such as maintaining a healthy weight, being physically active, and not smoking. Researchers are also trying to pinpoint any relevant dietary factors, one of which seems to be a high-fiber diet. The studies of male health professionals and female nurses both found that a diet high in cereal fiber was linked to a lower risk of type 2 diabetes. Diverticular Disease
Fiber has long been used in the prevention of diverticulitis, an inflammation of the intestine that in Western society is one of the most common age-related disorders of the colon. In North America, this painful disease is estimated to occur in one-third of all those over age 45 and in two-thirds of those over age 85. Constipation
Constipation is the most common gastrointestinal complaint in the United States and is of particular concern to the elderly. The gastrointestinal tract is highly sensitive to dietary fiber, and consumption of fiber seems to relieve and prevent constipation. The fiber in wheat bran and oat bran seems to be more effective than similar amounts of fiber from fruits and vegetables. Experts recommend increasing fiber intake gradually rather than suddenly. The intake of water and other non-caffeinated beverages should also be increased, as fiber absorbs water. Healthy people should drink at least eight 8-ounce glasses of water each day. Some tips for increasing fiber intake: Eat whole fruits instead of drinking fruit juices. Replace white rice, bread, and pasta with brown rice and whole-grain products. Choose whole-grain cereals for breakfast. Snack on raw vegetables instead of chips, crackers, or chocolate bars. Substitute legumes for meat two to three times per week in chili and soups. Experiment with international dishes (such as Indian or Middle Eastern) that use whole grains and legumes as part of the main meal (as in Indian dahls) or in salads (for example, tabbouleh). Fiber is an important part of a healthy diet, and you should get a least the minimum recommended amount of 20-35 grams of dietary fiber per day for adults. For children over age 2, the recommended intake is the child’s age +5 grams. The best sources are fresh fruits and vegetables, nuts and legumes, and whole-grain foods. From <http://orthomolecular.org/nutrients/taurine.html>

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